The Catcher in the Rye Themes, Symbols, and Literary Devices

J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye is a classic coming-of-age story. Narrated by sixteen-year-old Holden Caulfield, the novel paints a portrait of a struggling teenage boy as he attempts to hide his emotional pain behind cynicism and false worldliness. Through the use of symbolism, slang, and an unreliable narrator, Salinger explores themes of innocence vs. phoniness, alienation, and death. Innocence vs. Phoniness If you had to choose one word to represent The Catcher in the Rye, it would be phony, Holden Caufield’s insult of choice and a word he uses to describe most of the people he meets and much of the world he encounters. For Holden, the word implies artifice, a lack of authenticity—pretension. He views phoniness as a sign of growing up, as if adulthood were a disease and phoniness its most obvious symptom. He has moments of faith in younger people, but invariably condemns all the adults as phonies. The flip side of this is the value Holden puts on innocence, on being unspoiled. Innocence is typically assigned to children, and Holden is no exception, regarding his younger siblings as worthy of his affection and respect. His younger sister Phoebe is his ideal—she is intelligent and perceptive, talented and willful, but innocent of the terrible knowledge that Holden himself has gained with his extra six years (most notably concerning sex, which Holden wishes to protect Phoebe from). Holden’s dead brother, Allie, haunts him precisely because Allie will always be this innocent, being deceased. Part of Holden’s torment is his own phoniness. While he does not consciously indict himself, he engages in many phony behaviors that he would abhor if he were to observe them in himself. Ironically, this prevents him from being innocent himself, which explains to some degree Holden’s self-loathing and mental instability. Alienation Holden is isolated and alienated throughout the entire novel. There are hints that he is telling his story from a hospital where he is recovering from his breakdown, and throughout the story his adventures are consistently focused on making some sort of human connection. Holden self-sabotages constantly. He feels lonely and isolated at school, but one of the first things he tells us is that he’s not going to the football game everyone else is attending. He makes arrangements to see people, and then insults them and drives them away. Holden uses alienation to protect himself from mockery and rejection, but his loneliness drives him to keep trying to connect. As a result, Holden’s sense of confusion and alarm grows because he has no true anchor to the world around him. Since the reader is tied to Holden’s point-of-view, that terrifying sense of being completely cut off from everything, of everything in the world not making sense, becomes a visceral part of reading the book. Death Death is the thread that runs through the story. For Holden, death is abstract; he’s not primarily afraid of the physical facts of the end of life, because at 16 he can’t truly understand it. What Holden fears about death is the change that it brings. Holden continuously wishes for things to remain unchanged, and to be able to go back to better times—a time when Allie was alive. For Holden, Allie’s death was a shocking, unwanted change in his life, and he is terrified of more change—more death—especially when it comes to Phoebe. Symbols The Catcher in the Rye. There’s a reason this is the title of the book. The song Holden hears contains the lyric if a body meet a body, coming through the rye that Holden mishears as if a body catch a body. He later tells Phoebe that this is what he wishes to be in life, someone who catches the innocent if they slip and fall. The ultimate irony is that the song is about two people meeting for a sexual encounter, and Holden himself is too innocent to understand that. The Red Hunting Hat. Holden wears a hunting cap that he frankly admits is kind of ridiculous. For Holden it is a sign of his otherness and his uniqueness—his isolation from others. Notably, he removes the hat whenever he is meeting someone he wants to connect with; Holden knows full well the hat is part of his protective coloring. The Carousel. The carousel is the moment in the story when Holden lets go of his sadness and decides he will stop running and grow up. Watching Phoebe ride it, he is happy for the first time in the book, and part of his happiness is imagining Phoebe grabbing for the gold ring—a risky maneuver that could get a kid a prize. Holden’s admission that sometimes you have to let kids take risks like that is his surrender to the inevitability of becoming an adult—and leaving childhood behind. Literary Devices Unreliable Narrator. Holden tells you he is the most terrific liar you ever saw. Holden lies constantly throughout the story, making up identities and masking the fact that he’s been kicked out of school. As a result, the reader can’t necessarily trust Holden’s descriptions. Are the people he calls phonies really bad, or is it just how Holden wants you to see them? Slang. The story’s slang and teenage vernacular are out of date today, but the tone and style were remarkable when it was published for the way Salinger captured the way a teenager sees and thinks about things. The result is a novel that still feels authentic and confessional despite the passage of time. Holden’s style of telling the story also underscores his character—he uses profanities and slang words very self-consciously to shock and to demonstrate his jaded and worldly ways. Salinger also employs the use of filler phrases in Holden’s story, which gives the narrative the feeling of being spoken, as if Holden were actually telling you this story in person.

Intercultural Communication - 798 Words

With the growing of globalization, opportunities of intercultural communication become more common to individuals’ everyday life. Thus, it is of vital importance that people understand linguistic relativity and language ideologies in order to avoid misunderstandings and achieve effective intercultural communication. First of all, understanding linguistic relativity encourages people to pay attention to differences between various languages. How people perceive and experience the world around them can be influenced by language differences. (Piller, 2011) For example, people may act differently depending on what languages they are using. Daniel Oh explained that in Korea, people need to use honorifics in sentences when they speak to people†¦show more content†¦Another aspect of linguistic relativity is communicative relativity. A simple way to define communicative relativity is that â€Å"people do different things with language differently†. (Piller, 2011) On one hand, it is obvious that multilingual people tend to switch languages when talking to people from different cultures. On the other hand, differentiation in language can also take place in the monolingual situation. For instance, in the scene of debating, people may use a very different form of English than usual. Kyle Rit chie said that â€Å"the words, tone, and even speaking styles used by myself and fellow debaters was purely for the performance†. (reflection, May 1, 2017) This kind of choices of words and tone is aimed to be more â€Å"professional and knowledgeable† (reflection, May 1, 2017) Therefore, different ways of expression in various languages or even the same language can have a different effect on communication. To succeed in intercultural communication, it is necessary for individuals to understand the distinctive way each language has to perceive the world and express ideas and make right decisions of using language. In addition, in the intercultural communication, discrimination associated with language ideologies often exists. Language ideology refers to the views on each language, especially the idea about â€Å"what a good language is and what is linguistically right†. (Piller, 2011) SomeShow MoreRelatedIntercultural Communication21031 Words   |  85 PagesI. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION. FRAMEWORK ...the single greatest barrier to business success is the one erected by culture. Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall Why study Intercultural Communication? Cultural diversity and multiculturalism are the realities of everyday life for almost everyone. The growth of interdependence of people and cultures in the global society of the twenty-first century has forced us to pay more attention to intercultural issues. In order to live and functionRead MoreSolving Intercultural Communication Problems1447 Words   |  6 Pages Sherwood Fleming s Intercultural Communication Insights . 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Business Ethics Theories and Moral Guidance

Question: Describe about the Business Ethics for Theories and Moral Guidance. Answer: 1. Who are the key stakeholders? The key stakeholders of Iraqi Oil for Food scandal are known as Australian wheat board. An exporting monopoly of Australia and Saddam Hussein leads the Iraqi govt (Phillips Freeman, 2010). According to the governance Oil for Food program (OFFP) inquiry, AWB paid a $300 million in kickbacks to Iraqi govt. 2. What is the main ethical issue from the perspective of two of the key stakeholders? Security Council applied economic sanctions against Iraqi to create political pressure as well as withdraw Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Throughout the penalty period, Saddam government stayed uncompromising and brutal in the treatment of political opponents. The Cole inquiry relation to OFFP finds out AWB. AWB had been paying bribes to the Iraqi governments. Therefore it bans all the import of wheat from Australia to the new Iraqi government. Cole inquiry also finds out that AWB was well known about its payment as tracking fees. 3. Provide a brief analysis of the ethical issue using two ethical theories. AWB's activity was simply a cost of ruin business in high wheat demanding market of Iraqi. Clearly, economic sanctions have failed to apply sufficient economic and political pressure to change the nature of the regime (VYRYNEN, 2006). Iraqi govt refused to purchase of any wheat from US farmers as United Nations supports for the sanctions continued. The other competitors like Australia get a big chance to secure their corn shell in Iraqi. References Phillips, R. Freeman, R. (2010).Stakeholders. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. VYRYNEN, P. (2006). Ethical Theories and Moral Guidance.Utilitas,18(03), 291-309. https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0953820806002056

Marriage as Depicted in Soloveitchiks Typology of Human Nature

Introduction In the lonely man of faith article, Soloveitchik tries to find a way in which he could understand frustrations and conflicts that occurred in his path while pursuing faith in the current world (Soloveitchik, 1992). The main conflict Soloveitchik tries to put across concerns the loneliness that people of faith experience in the modern society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Marriage as Depicted in Soloveitchik’s Typology of Human Nature specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Men of faith experience this loneliness despite having many friends and acquaintances. The whole story centers on the universal theme of struggling to be human. In addressing the theme, Soloveitchik analyzed the two creation stories of genesis in the first two chapters. According to Soloveitchik assertions, there are three inconsistencies in the first two chapters of the bible (Soloveitchik, 1992). While analyzing these discrepa ncies, two types of human beings are created. In line with Soloveitchik, these types of human nature are called the first and the second Adams (Soloveitchik, 1992). It this two types of Adams, human nature is depicted together with the way it leads its life in the modern world. This paper analyzes these two typologies of human nature in the context of marriage and their implications in the social work practice. Review of Soloveitchik’s typology of human nature in ‘the Lonely Man of Faith’ In line with Soloveitchik claims, the first chapter in the bible indicates that Adam was like God. However, this chapter did not mention the formation process of Adams body. The second chapter shows that Adams body was from soil, and into his nostrils, God breathed the breath of life (Samuel Sable, 2008). Besides, founded on Soloveitchik arguments, there were two Adams. The first Adam got the Gods mandate to fill the world and have the power over everything that is on it. The s econd Adam was given the duty of cultivating the land and keeping the gardens (Samuel Sable, 2008). In the story of the first Adam, man and woman were concurrently created while in the second Adam story, Eve or the helper appeared later. Similarly, Soloveitchik had the view that these contradictions and discrepancies are not textual, but they are rather within the human nature. They result from the duality and inner incongruity found in human beings (Samuel Sable, 2008). As a result, two types of people are depicted. The Adams of the two stories is not real people, but they represent the types of human beings that Soloveitchik constructs. The function of these two people creates the comparability and greater understanding of the natural duality of human beings in society.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Soloveitchik asserts that the first Adam and Eve were made in the God†™s image during creation. As indicated in the first chapter, â€Å"the first Adam and Eve were permitted to reproduce and fill the whole earth†. Moreover, they were to have dominion and power over nature. Soloveitchik further argues that, â€Å"creation in the God’s image meant that human beings are gifted with celestial intelligence that they must utilize to fulfill the God’s command† (Soloveitchik, 1992). In other words, human beings are supposed to produce and construct societies as well as civilizations through their intellectual capabilities. In the same vein, human beings have to use within their intellectual capabilities the brain-power and knowledge to achieve the mandate. First Adam and Eve are concerned with the ills that affect human nature and how they use the given intellect to counter such ills. In doing so, they can be able to build a society that is prosperous and perpetual. They were equally curious intellectually, success oriented, agg ressive and dominating. They are driven by the need of success, procreation and environmental control (Linzer, 1978). They believe that one cannot create and sustain society by oneself. This implies that, man and woman were created to fulfill the mandate given by God. In the community of first Adam and Eve, human beings are socially interdependent. First Adam and Eve represent the modern man who is technologically advanced, intellectually go-getters, doers, lawyers, workaholics and in general, they represent the modern society professionals (Samuel Sable, 2008). The second Adam and Eve are perceived as being passive and introspective according to the descriptive nature of their own creation. These kinds of human beings are more concerned with their spiritual well being and the meaning of life. The origin of the second Adam spiritual nature and submissiveness stems from his creation (Soloveitchik, 1992). Nevertheless, the loneliness nature results from being created singly. As state d by Soloveitchik, â€Å"the creation of second Eve from second Adam was an archetype of intimate and in-depth relationship that can possibly cope with existential loneliness† (Samuel Sable, 2008). Soloveitchik further asserts that the community created by the second Adam is a conventional faithful community where God, man and woman interact. That is the community of people committed to the desires of God. Basically, it is a community of religious people whereby the societal ideals are commensurate with Gods ideals. Within this community, people find ways of overcoming their solitude existence through spiritual and interpersonal connections (Samuel Sable, 2008). Generally, in real life situation, the second Adam community, in a non-religious secular context, represents therapy groups, the self help groups as well as the friendship groups.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Marriage as Depicted in Soloveitchik’s Typology of Human Nature specificall y for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The typology in marriage According to these typologies, marriage is essential for the propagation of human society. Essentially, human society cannot be created and built from a single person. From the typology of the first Adam, God created females and males on an equal basis (Linzer, 1978). They were given the responsibility of multiplying and filling the earth. Multiplication process required the union of these people and combined efforts of their intellect to ensure that their offspring survive. Thus, the males and females were given the authorities by God to construct and generate societies through the application of their intellect (Samuel Sable, 2008). In other words, these people were to use all their knowledge and brain-power at their disposal to accomplish this purpose. All their endeavors must be directed towards attaining various family roles. The life of these two people must be driven by the ultima te aim of marriage which comes with the need to produce and succeed in upbringing the offspring. Achieving this marital aim require that they make use of their intellectual capability to create conducive environment in which their offspring could survive (Linzer, 1978). Marriage is not just a matter of union between females and males, but includes other responsibilities that are geared towards creating a better society. In the modern society, the equality between man and woman is highly upheld unlike in the conventional society where women were subdued. The modern societal expectations are that both the women and men equally contribute to the development of their marital status. That is, they ought to use all their intellectual and physical capability towards ensuring decisively up-bring their families. As in the case of the first Adam and Eve, the creation of man and wife occurred at the same time. This indicated that they were given equal responsibilities to fulfill the commands g iven to them by God (Samuel Sable, 2008). In addition, man and woman require each other in order to attain the mandate though in some cases, they may perform their task of fulfilling this mandate in different ways. In essence, the man and the woman symbolize a community consisting of individual males and females who are mutually working jointly in fulfilling their universal functions (Samuel Sable, 2008). On the other hand, â€Å"the second Adam represented a conventional family where humility, submissiveness and passivity are highly upheld† (Samuel Sable, 2008). The type of family we get from the second Adam is such a religious family where the spiritual standards stem from the original creation ideals (Soloveitchik, 1992). Adam two was first created as a single man. Being lonely pushes the second Adam to look for a partner who would share with him his loneliness. God first made Adam two to sleep so as to pull part of his body to create a woman helper (Soloveitchik, 1992) . The second Adam had to first sacrifice part of his body for the partner to be created.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Soloveitchik’s, in this typology, creating a woman in this form represented an act of defeat and surrender. Eve came into existence only after Adams sacrificed and surrendered part of his body (Samuel Sable, 2008). Eve’s creation from Adam provides a model where intimate and in-depth relationships deal with existential loneliness. What this depicts is that, it is only through shared sacrifice and endurance that can make marriages and friendship thrives (Samuel Sable, 2008). Furthermore, it is through these that families, organizations, community and society can thrive, survive and grow. In general, marriage is an essential part of life. Just like any society, successful marriage results from shared sacrifices and endurance. The relationship between second Adam and Eve is symbolic of the modern day type of marriages. The mandates and characteristics of the relationship of the first Adam and Eve are symbolic of the duties and responsibilities of the marrie d people in the modern society (Samuel Sable, 2008). Also are the challenges that the married people in the modern society face particularly the challenges in relation to professionalism and career objectives. Comparing and contrasting Soloveitchik’s views with those of Hegel While advancing his theory of family life, Hegel took into consideration the types of modern world marital perspectives together with its characteristics of social activities and dynamics. Unlike the Soloveitchik’s views, Hegel conception of marriage and family is blemished by the progressions of internal inconsistencies between the interactions of the family and love, the position of women in the modern society and the certainty of the rise of the family. According to Hegel, the family originated as a result of industrial capitalism rather not commanded by God as claimed by Soloveitchik’s. However, some of his views are in line with that of Soloveitchik’s. Both tried to explain fam ily life and marriage in accordance with the modern world perceptions as well as its social undertakings. What is more, is the fact that they attempted to bring out the connections between marriage and family life, from the perspectives of ethical, religious and political life. To them, marriage life has endured in the face of modern day social fragmentation resulting from the growing modern day economic relationships. Relevance of marriage from social work perspective There is a greater role played by marriage in the society as depicted in Soloveitchik’s views. From the conventional perspective, married people must assume the state of humility as well as spiritual connectedness so as to succeed in their roles and responsibilities. In contrast, creativity, handwork or generally the use of human intellect is the main driver of the modern day marital status. Furthermore, modern day economic challenges have a profound effect on marriage life. The unpredictability of the success of the modern marriages reflects the economic hardship and challenges that modern man faces. Whereas characteristics such as endurance, perseverance and conventional characteristics determine the type of marriages in the modern day society, economic considerations have conquered the humble and noble divine practice of the past. In fact, the economic considerations have rendered the modern day marriages to appear just like contractual agreements between those who are involved. The marriages of today are not binding as was seen before. Even though some religious practices are still being considered significant especially on their purported purposes, their dimensions have totally taken different perspectives. In conclusion therefore, understanding today’s marriages from the religious and other perspectives is essential as it might help us to deal with its ensuing philosophical challenges. As a social worker, it is important to be equipped with knowledge and skills necessary in p roviding solutions to the effects that commonly break marriages in the current society. Equipping oneself with such skills involves understanding the dynamics of marriage from various philosophical viewpoints. References Linzer, N. (1978). The nature of man in Judaism and social work. New York, NY: Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Samuel, J. Sable, J. (2008). The lonely man of faith: Implications for social work practice. Journal of Jewish Communal Service, 83(2/3), 186-203. Soloveitchik, J. B. (1992). The lonely man of faith. New York, NY: Doubleday. This essay on Marriage as Depicted in Soloveitchik’s Typology of Human Nature was written and submitted by user Jeremiah Todd to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Essay Example

Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Essay Example Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Paper Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Paper Jane Eyre is a classic romance novel by Charlotte Bronte (in the first person) that was published in 1847; by Smith, Elder Company, London. Charlotte Bronte first published the book as Jane Eyre: an Autobiography under the pseudonym Currer Bell. The protagonist and main character in this novel is Jane Eyre; orphaned at the mere age of one due to the death of both her parents, currently aged ten. When Jane was orphaned, her mothers brother offered to take Jane in and care for her, he then died however before he died he made his wife Mrs. Reed promise to look after Jane as if Jane was her own she agreed. Currently aged 10, Jane lives at Gateshead with: Mrs. Reed, Georgiana, Eliza and John Reed; whom all despise Jane and treat her with confounding cruelty especially John Reed he struck suddenly and strongly Jane feels like an outsider to her family environment `A heart saddened by the chidings of Bessie, the nurse, and humbled by the consciousness of my physical inferiority to Eliza, John, and Georgiana Reed. ` Bessie chides Jane extensively more than her cousins, also the quote shows that the way Jane feels about herself has been largely influenced by the perception of the other family members. In chapter one Jane had been excluded as a full family member. ` She really must exclude me from privileges intended only for contented, happy, little children. ` As a result Jane slipped in the breakfast-room that adjoined the drawing-room and possessed herself a book which she began to read; Bronte shows Janes character as very independent and mature for her age, it shows she has a mind of her own also it shows she does not give up and is not easily defeated. During Victorian times children who were orphaned with no money, being at the mercy of their benefactors, usually looked at life as being a constant struggle as there were not many choices one could make to guarantee survival and were often seen as obligated to follow the orders of their benefactors; do as they were told and look up to the rest of the family because the orphan was now dependent. At the end of chapter 1 Jane tries to remain unnoticed in the drawing room reading on a rainy day, but John Reed, the fourteen-year-old son of Mrs. Reed, soon finds her. Jane lives in terror of John, as he bullies and punishes her without end. John becomes angry that Jane is reading one of their books, and says that: she is a dependent there, has no money, and should not live [there] with gentlemens children like [them]. John throws the book at Jane, causing her to fall and cut her head against the door. Jane then fights against him, and when Mrs. Reed enters the room she sends Jane to be locked in the red-room. The Red room symbolizes Janes character Bronte shows this in the form of pathetic fallacy; red is often used in conjunction with the themes of passion and fury, and the descriptions such as the curtains of deep red damask mirror physically Janes passionate character. I resisted. Bronte uses first person narrative to convey Janes anger and defiance; Janes state of mind has changed because she is angry she is treated and viewed as a second class to the Reed household which makes her want to fight back/rebel. The juxtaposition and metaphor of Brontes description of Jane as a rebel slave shows the reader Jane is conscious of her rebellion, also it shows the reader and emphasizes the point Jane is rebelling her wrongful placement of a lower-class status to the rest of the Reed household. Although in the times of today this would seem unjust, in Victorian times, this is the way all orphans were treated especially and girls who had an even lower rank but Jane was surprisingly, for an orphan, well educated and so had developed her own views on her difficult situation, thus enabling her to act accordingly. Brontes use of the simile shes like a wild cat creates a vivid image of Janes behavior in the readers mind and also shows Janes excessively passionate character. Master! How is he my master? Am I a servant? Brontes cluster of three and use of sequential rhetorical questions again shows how passionate Jane is about being seen as an equal in the Reed household. Bronte conveys Janes feelings of ignominy; this preparation for bonds, and the additional ignominy it inferred, took a little of the excitement out of me. Janes state of mind has changed seeing the immense degree of humility it inferred and so made the decision to pull her behavior together in order to avoid being further extensively humiliated. During Victorian times many orphans were abused and publically disgraced. Bronte uses metaphors to convey Janes feelings of being trapped; the Red Room itself is described as: a vault, `chamber. The reason for Janes change in state of mind is due to Brontes use of these metaphors which gives the room prison like qualities which creates the element of being trapped. Brontes strong use of imagery, colours, repetition and her use of pathetic fallacy of colours associated with red; Mahogany, crimson and pink show Janes state of mind as angry at being locked in the Red Room on the other hand, Brontes use of the simile like a pale throne suggests Brontes use of the simile `tiny phantoms` gives the scene a scary atmosphere and has a ghostly effect, also it sows the building accumulation of fear in Jane. Brontes use of other similes such as; `half fairy` `half imp` implies the room had stimulated Janes imagination furthermore the mirror may symbolizes Janes inner self. During Victorian times they genuinely believed in super superstitions; during mourning a death mirrors were covered because of a lingering superstition that the spirit of the deceased could become trapped in the reflective glass ` Superstition was with me at that moment`. The metaphor `revolted slave` shows the reader Jane still feels to rebel despite her fears, also again Bronte refers to the theme of slavery, which shows yet again Jane feels trapped she has no freedom, Jane does not want to be in the red room but has no choice. This was the case during Victorian times; orphans had no choice, no say in the matter, orphans had no free will. Janes education and knowledge provided her with a basis to understand her situation, and act impulsively which results in a revolt a rebellion. Jane feels isolated; because shes in so much shock she must think deeply, and gather her thoughts. `I was like nobody there`

Overview of Social Phenomenology

Overview of Social Phenomenology Social phenomenology is an approach within the field of sociology that aims to reveal what role human awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations and social worlds. In essence, phenomenology is the belief that society is a human construction. Phenomenology was originally developed by a German mathematician named Edmund Husserl in the early 1900s in order to locate the sources or essences of reality in the human consciousness. It wasn’t until the 1960s that it entered the field of sociology by Alfred Schutz, who sought to provide a philosophical foundation for Max Weber’s interpretive sociology. He did this by applying the phenomenological philosophy of Husserl to the study of the social world. Schutz postulated that it is subjective meanings that give rise to an apparently objective social world. He argued that people depend upon language and the â€Å"stock of knowledge† they have accumulated to enable social interaction. All social interaction requires that individuals characterize others in their world, and their stock of knowledge helps them with this task. The central task in social phenomenology is to explain the reciprocal interactions that take place during human action, situational structuring, and reality construction. That it, phenomenologists seek to make sense of the relationships between action, situation, and reality that take place in society. Phenomenology does not view any aspect as causal, but rather views all dimensions as fundamental to all others. Application Of Social Phenomenology One classic application of social phenomenology was done by Peter Berger and Hansfried Kellner in 1964 when they examined the social construction of marital reality. According to their analysis, marriage brings together two individuals, each from different lifeworlds, and puts them into such close proximity to each other that the lifeworld of each is brought into communication with the other. Out of these two different realities emerges one marital reality, which then becomes the primary social context from which that individual engages in social interactions and functions in society. Marriage provides a new social reality for people, which is achieved mainly through conversations with their spouse in private. Their new social reality is also strengthened through the couple’s interaction with others outside of the marriage. Over time a new marital reality will emerge that will contribute to the formation of new social worlds within which each spouse would function.

Thomas Jefferson's view on slavery Research Paper

Thomas Jefferson's view on slavery - Research Paper Example In his life, Jefferson appears to have contradicted his writing, views, deeds and thoughts on the issue of slavery (Bernstein 56). Jefferson as an opponent against slavery As a young legislator and president, Jefferson took actions that he thought would aid in ending slavery. As a young legislator in Virginia, he had tried to advocate the private land owners to free their slaves. This was, however, unsuccessful as private land owners viewed this as a way towards economic downfall. They used slaves as cheap labor in their plantations and thus, if they had supported Jefferson in his advocacy for slavery end, they would have suffered economically. Although he failed in his advocacy for slavery abolishment by private land owners, Jefferson later returned to draft a bill barring freed blacks from staying in Virginia. He drafted a Virginia law prohibiting the importation of enslaved blacks into the state (Zinn 120). He was successful in the passage of this bill. Nevertheless, it is viewed that the private land owners in his state passed the bill to raise the price of slaves who were already their captives. In 1784, Jefferson forwarded a proposal to ban slavery in the newly created territories of the northwest. As the principal author of the land ordinance of 1784, he called for an end to slavery and involuntary servitude in these territories. Jefferson wanted a line to be drawn depicting the north and south at which slavery should not be extended westwards of the impassable line. This bill, however, was defeated by a single vote. Jefferson also proposed in the mid 1770s for a means through which those born into slavery could be freed. He referred to this as gradual emancipation by which after a certain date, those who were born into slavery became freed. In his advocacy for gradual emancipation of slaves, Jefferson wanted slaves to be resettled out of the United States, or they be returned to Africa (Spahn 65). He believed that once slaves were freed, the oppression they had suffered under their masters would breed hatred for their masters. He saw to it that the slaves would instigate violence on their former masters. It is in this thought that he believed the best plan would be to resettle slaves out of America. These actions show the efforts by Jefferson, while still a legislator, to end and stop slavery at the time. As president, in 1807, Jefferson signed an act which prohibited importation of slaves. This act helped to outlaw international slave trade in the United States although it took effect almost a year later. Jefferson was also the chief author of the declaration of independence in which he strongly argued against slavery (Zinn 49). Through the declaration of independence, he noted that slavery opposed nature which calls for every human being to be treated and respected equally. He called the institution to be immoral and not just. In his first draft of the declaration, he noted that every man was equal, and slavery did not replicate this but only caused oppression and death to those held captive. These statements represent Jefferson’s stance on slavery which he opposed. Thomas Jefferson’s views on slavery also became noted through his use of strong words in which he called for an end to the institution. Through his writing and correspondence with political and business associates, his strong words against slavery stood out. His

Project Managment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Managment - Assignment Example The company considered setting up its own Information Systems Department to develop (or adapt) software for the robots to match its customers requirements, but decided instead to outsource this task to companies. Now is one of the largest manufacturers of industrial robots in UK. One robot responds by moving through the warehouse picking appropriate shelving and framework timber for this product and delivering it to the assembly room. (Based on their identification code, appropriate software allows the robot to access a list of components required, and to find where in the warehouse they are stored.) Another robot, in the assembly room, puts these parts together (using glue or bolts where appropriate) to make the bookshelf. It moves the completed bookshelf to a nearby holding area ready for loading onto a truck. The computer system (in addition to controlling the robots) should keep track of the stock of each type of shelf and frame component that has been used and so be able to report when stock replenishment is required. Time - The amount of time required to complete the project. ... The computer system (in addition to controlling the robots) should keep track of the stock of each type of shelf and frame component that has been used and so be able to report when stock replenishment is required. Criteria of Success For success of the project at The Shelf Company Proposal document. In broad terms you will oversee a project that will involve: The delivery, installation and testing of two industrial robots. The installation of a minicomputer system to be used as the centralised storage and processing unit for use by the two robots at TSC. The installation of terminal and peripheral devices in the control centre, and cabling to the mini and to the parts of the warehouse where the robots will operate. Develop documentation for the new system, suitable for use by staff at TSC. Organising and overseeing the training of staff on the new system. Assumption Project Management tries to gain control over some variables: Time - The amount of time required to complete the project. Typically broken down for analytical purposes into the time required to complete the components of the project, which is then further broken down into the time required to complete each task contributing to the completion of each component. Cost - Calculated from the time variable. Cost to develop an internal project is time multiplied by the cost of the team members involved. When hiring an independent consultant for a project, cost will typically be determined by the consultant or firm's hourly rate multiplied by an estimated time to complete. Quality - The amount of time put into individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some tasks may require a given amount of time to complete adequately, but given more time could be

The Reign of Henry VII Essay Example for Free

The Reign of Henry VII Essay The lineage of her house of York Margaret of Burgundy was guiding and educating Warbeck of his family ancestry, he was to understand the Yorkist rebellions and the perspective in England if he is to be a convincing threat of opposition. Their recent disaster Cornish rebellions had been appalling, the revolts of the peasants against the new King had failed. Warbeck knew of the uprising to strike again and saw this as his perfect opportunity to attack alongside, with such support he could easily have worried Henry. Document B shows evidence that Warbeck had little support in Scotland and was loosing it within Ireland, possibly due to the bonds and act of attainder. Henry had previously had the nobility sign. He learnt of a forthcoming attack from the Cornish, and so made his way to help them in their battle. It is not suggested that he was invited or that he even had support, until he was ashore. Document C suggests that he must have been invited because he had so little men and once in port had the aid of over 8,000 peasants. It is in Cornwall that he was acclaimed King Richard. Document D appears to paint a similar picture but yet different perspective to why Warbeck left Scotland. It states that Warbeck was the cause of the whole war between the Scotch and English. With this in mind, and the idea of the problem Warbeck could pose for Scotland, it is possible that he was enforced to look for support elsewhere rather than cause a battle. Document A impresses the reader with Warbecks strong qualities and his participation on the duping of King Henry VII. He is both willing and strong-minded and partakes in the education Margaret of Burgundy provides for him on his ancestry and his role within England. His actions suggest he is comfortable with portraying on opposition to the King, despite his threat being false. With this in mind, the evidence in Document E is contradictory in its approach. It should be noted that this source is written by Warbeck himself and might have been writing to depict a used and exploited young man, rather than the strong character he was thought to be. Document E describes in detail the ordeals Warbeck was dutiful in, but the tone implies his actions occurred against his will. Looking at both Documents, it is apparent that both relay a chain of events. However, the fact that both have different perspectives suggests that further resources are needed to analyse the character of Warbeck and therefore show the reliability of the extracts. Perkin Warbeck was a serious threat to Henry VII only because of the backing he gained outside England. Warbeck found foreign support when the British people failed to assist him in his attack on the crown. Henry had previously placed bonds and acts of attainder of the lords of England and offered pardons to rebels as a way of ensuring that when there was trouble, there would be a lack of support. Margaret of Burgundy chose to support Warbeck as she had previously done in 1486-1487 with Lambert Simnel, in hope to regain her status over the King, who had killed her brother Richard of York. Warbeck also had support from Charles V of France, who had lost support from England and had disputes over Brittany. However, when Henry and Charles agreed to resolve their differences, and sign the Treaty of Etaples, which stated that rebels could not be concealed, Warbeck was dismissed. Warbeck then returned to Margaret, who had given the control of Burgundy to Archduke Philip. When Henry protested of the harbouring of Warbeck, Philip ignored him, this resulted in a trading ban from England. Warbeck also had support from Maximillian, who he promised could be his claimant if he should die before reaching the crown. Despite all his foreign backing, which was probably the most important reason he was such a dangerous threat, the support Warbeck received within England itself was equally as major in possibility. In 1494 Henry learnt of conspiracies within his own Government. The discovery that Sir William Stanley had been conversing with Warbeck reminded Henry that inside help was still a problem. It also became apparent that English authority within his kingdom needed addressing. Stanley had been almost second in command. Henry tightened his reign and lost all confidence and trust in those who surrounded him. An English supported attack was also visibly dangerous, as it would have been easier for Warbeck to gather together troops and supplies. Warbecks threat lasted between 1491 1499, which could suggest he was either a large threat or a relatively small one who simply couldnt form enough support to attack the King. From the evidence in the Documents, Warbeck moved from country to country, city to city suggesting that he never had a firm base of support in any particular place. Document C is the only source, which seems to imply English support, and this was from the Cornish who were already rebelling. Therefore Documents A, B, D and E, back the proposal that Warbecks main threat came from his foreign support. However, Henry over came this by his Treaties and Truces. The execution of Warbeck demonstrated to both the English and foreign leaders that Henry was secure upon the throne and remained so until his death in 1509.

Essay --

Americans are dying every day from diseases that could be prevented through the research of stem cells. Diseases like diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, breast cancer, lupus, Lou Gehrig’s disease, arthritis, stroke, anemia, cancer, immunodeficiency, corneal damage, and blood and liver diseases can one day be cured through the research and use of stem cells. People still argue that the use of embryonic stem cells is an act against God. â€Å"The bottom line is that there are 400,000 frozen embryos in the United States, and a large percentage of those are going to be thrown out† (Thomson 10). That is an act against God as well. Every day we hear about these amazing unspecialized cells, and what we also hear that the world is discovering new uses for it every day. The government should promote this phenomenon. It is crucial that the government increase funding for the extremely beneficial use of these precious cells. Embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs, which have been fertilized in vitro, fertilized outside of the womb, in an in vitro fertilization clinic. Embryonic stem cells are only one kind of stem cell. â€Å"Human embryonic stem cells are the cells from which all 200 kinds of tissue in the human body originate† (Bellomo 2). These cells are vital to the human body for development, growth, and repair of each organ. Which also means that embryonic stem cells are highly adaptable and able to correspond to every organ in the human body. â€Å"They are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of†¨inactivity† (Stem Cell Basics 2). When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more s... ...mbryonic stem cells altogether. If these stem cells were researched, tested on, and developed more, there would be no more need to kill embryos. There would also be no more controversy over embryonic stem cells. Stem cells are one of the miracles of life and these marvelous cells should be taken advantage of. They are able to save thousands of lives now and, with more researching and development, they will be able to save hundreds of thousands and even millions. The first issue that needs to be dealt with before anything else is funding for stem cell research. The issues of religion and moral beliefs cannot deter people from saving individuals who are suffering with leukemia and numerous other dreadful diseases. Everyone should receive the treatment they deserve. The government should increase funding for stem cell research for the development and use of stem cells.

Visual Argumentation: Gary McCoy’s Political Cartoon

The election fever has once again struck the land. Now more than ever, nationwide attention has started to zero in – quite lopsidedly in fact – on key political figures such as Barack Obama and John McCain. The two have been landing in major news headlines, as well as figuring in major media outfits as they try hard to convey their respective political programs to the public. As expected, they too – as indeed their proposed policies – have been subjected to a numberless of analyses, if not criticisms from all fronts; from television to radio shows, news magazines to dailies, as well as in various rallies and party conventions. One potent example of such analyses or criticisms is an editorial cartoon. Despite being just a single drawing about certain persons or issues, it nevertheless conveys powerful statements. For this paper, it would be wise to take Gary McCoy’s political cartoon, specifically depicting Barack Obama, as a specific example to concretely cite the case in point. Gary McCoy’s Caricature of Barack Obama It has to be firstly mentioned that the strength of an editorial cartoon lies in its ability to both convey the message hidden in the scene it portrays and engender â€Å"an opinion about someone or something prominent in the news† (Cartoon 217). But any evaluation of a political cartoon would also have to make a factual description of the piece as it is drawn – i. e. , a description of the cartoon as it appears. This entails suspending inherent biases, immediate judgments or initial impressions that one may already develop at the first sight of the cartoon. Gary McCoy’s caricature of Barack Obama portrays the politician while giving a speech. Therein, Obama’s face is visibly elongated; his forehead and chin thinly protruding. His right hand holds a microphone while his left hand is raised and points – that is, using his point finger – on to his supposed audience. Atop Obama is a speech-balloon which reads: â€Å"Random noun, miscellaneous verbs, blah, blah, Hope, Change†. Two creatures that appear to be kangaroos donned in coat and tie are portrayed talking to each other down the left corner. The creature to the right talks to his companion with the words: â€Å"This is getting easier by the minute†. While another balloon referenced to Barack’s supposed audience reads: â€Å"Cheer! Applause!! Yeaa!! Cheer!! Applause!! † The audience is depicted nowhere in the cartoon. It seems needless to argue that the cartoon is effective in conveying its message to its audience. This is because at first sight, one can already glean from the cartoon the central argument which it carries: that it is a criticism of Barack Obama in the first place, and the entire political system of the United States along the same vein. First, it is evident that McCoy makes a statement against Barack Obama. It can be specifically against his political strategy or the direction into which his campaign particularly treads. As indeed, the criticism can very well be against his innate giftedness to rouse a political audience, him being a gifted orator to say the least. â€Å"Random nouns and miscellaneous verbs† represents McCoy’s perception that Obama either has run out of new ideas to offer or does not have anything substantial to say in the very first place. In fact, the two kangaroos bolster the criticism being leveled. This is getting easier by the minute† appears to say that many people have in fact become used to, or have gotten tired of hearing Obama talk about his hope and change messages. The cartoon may very well be a statement against Obama’s credibility; for to imply that Obama’s hope and change messages – read: his main benchmarks – barely say anything is tantamount to saying that the heart and soul of his political agenda is ber eft of sense and direction altogether. Second, the cartoon is likewise effective in drawing related reactions beyond the intended Obama criticism. On the one hand, the cartoon is also a criticism of the people’s implied gullibility or perceived lack of critical thought in receiving Barack Obama. Obama, as mentioned, is a gifted speaker. And many people, it needs to be argued, are drawn to persons who can comport themselves authoritatively in public conventions and rallies. The cartoon therefore takes on how people appear unable to go beyond Obama’s charisma as a speaker. This is most notably seen in how the cartoon depicts the crowd applauding Obama’s speech, despite its implied lack of reasonable substance. McCoy therefore implies that, on account of this tendency, the general public is not able to give Obama’s message much needed second thoughts. On the other hand, it would be wise to cite that the cartoon can also be interpreted as a statement against the manner by which politics is exercised in this country. The conversation of the two kangaroos is telling – â€Å"this is getting easier by the minute† may be taken as a an unfortunate resignation over a political exercise marked by lack of substance on the part of politicians and lack of depth on the part of the voting public. If taken into this context, the cartoon may not specifically be against Barack Obama as the whole political system of the United States. Far from being offensive, the cartoon can in fact be ultimately taken as McCoy’s call to reform the exercise of politics in this country. Conclusion This paper now concludes that Gary McCoy’s political cartoon is effective in conveying its message to its audience. At the very least, the cartoon is clear in that it depicts its message without much ambiguity. In the discussions which were developed, it was learned that the cartoon is firstly a criticism against Barack Obama. As it depicts the politician’s speech as something that consists in nothing but the recurrent rhetoric on hope and change, the cartoon therefore implies that Obama either has nothing new to say or his message has no substance. But far from being offensive, it is also argued that the cartoon may be taken as McCoy’s call to reform the political practice of this country.

Thermodynamics And Kinetics Of Materials And Processes Environmental Sciences Essay

In natural philosophies, thermodynamics ( from the Greek I?I ­I?I?I · therme, intending â€Å" heat † and I?I?I?I ±I?I?I‚ , dynamis, intending â€Å" power † ) is the survey of energy transition between heat and mechanical work, and later the macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and force per unit area. Its primogenitor, based on statistical anticipations of the corporate gesture of atoms from their microscopic behaviour, is the field of statistical thermodynamics ( or statistical mechanics ) , a subdivision of statistical natural philosophies. Thermodynamicss is the scientific discipline which relates kineticss of fluids with thermic and energy, thermodynamics trades with heat, work, and power. In this study a set of statements and expressions are described and explained.State of a System, 0th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The zeroth jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that when two organic structures have equality of temperature with a 3rd organic structure, they in bend equality of temperature with each other [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . If A, B, and C are systems or organic structures, we said that the organic structures or the systems are in thermic equilibrium or changeless temperature, A and B in thermic equilibrium and B and C are in thermic equilibrium besides. if T ( A ) = T ( B ) and T ( B ) = T ( C ) so T ( A ) = T ( C ) .Figure ( 1 ) : Thermal equilibrium between two organic structures.Work, Heat, 1th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The first jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that during a rhythm a system ( command mass ) undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat is relative to the cyclic integral of the work [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . In another words the preservation of energy provinces that the alteration in the internal energy of any closed system equal the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system. the undermentioned equation shows that: See Piston cylinder system with H2O inside the cylinder, province ( 1 ) as shown in figure ( 2 ) below shows the initial province of the system ( H2O has internal energy ) and it is in equilibrium province, when an external burden applied to the Piston the system transferred to province ( 2 ) and work and heat transferred into and from the system to make to the 2nd equilibrium place ( province 2 ) .Figure ( 2 ) : Application of the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics.Internal Energy, Expansion Work:The internal energy is a thermodynamic belongings ; besides it can be defined as the sum of random energy included in certain sum of the mater due to the internal motion of atoms. Besides it is extended belongings because it depends on the mass of the system. The sum of internal energy of any stuff as thermodynamic belongings depends on the mass of the organic structure and it specific heat capacity, for illustration if we increase the temperature of metal its internal energy increased based on the temperature difference, besides metals have high specific heat capacity than liquids.Figure ( 3 ) : Comparison between metal and ice based on the internal energy.Heat content:The heat content is defined as the heat transportation during the procedure which is given in the footings of the alteration in internal energy, force per unit area and volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The undermentioned equation shows the chief parametric quantities of heat content. The thermodynamic potency H was introduced by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes in early twentieth century in the undermentioned signifier: Where Tocopherol represents the energy of the system. In the absence of an external field, the heat content may be defined, as it is by and large known, by: where ( all units given in SI ) H is the heat content ( in Js ) , U is the internal energy ( in Js ) , P is the force per unit area of the system, ( in Pas ) , and V is the volume, ( in three-dimensional metres ) . Form pV ( sometimes called â€Å" flow work † ) is motivated by the undermentioned illustration of an isobaric procedure. Gas bring forthing heat ( by, for illustration, a chemical reaction ) in a cylinder pushes a Piston, keeping changeless force per unit area P and adding to its thermic energy. The force is calculated from the country A of the Piston and definition of force per unit area P = F/A: the force is F = pA. By definition, work W done is W = Fx, where ten is the distance traversed. Uniting gives W = pax, and the merchandise Ax is the volume traversed by the Piston: Ax = V. Thus, the work done by the gas is W = pV, where P is a changeless force per unit area and V the enlargement of volume. Including this term allows the treatment of energy alterations when non merely temperature, but besides volume or force per unit area are changed. The enthalpy alteration can be defined I†H = I†U + W = I†U + I† ( pV ) , where I†U is the thermic energy due to warming of the gas during the enlargement, and W the work done on the Piston.Joule-Thomson Experiment:Joule-Thomson experiment is used to find the C dioxide coefficient. And comparing the experimental value with the deliberate value. Figure ( 3 ) shows the experimental setup of Joule-Thomson experiment.Figure ( 3 ) : Joule-Thomson experimental apparatus ( Taylor ) .The fluid allowed fluxing steadily from a high force per unit area to low force per unit area through a porous stopper inserted in a pipe. At steady conditions the pipe is insulated from any heat loss to environing, the flow speed should be low so the differences in kinetic energy between the upstream and the downstream are negligible. Measurements ‘ of temperature and force per unit area up watercourse and downstream the media should be taken ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . Ploting curves for both warming and chilling procedure for force per unit area and temperature of the gas, the aforethought curves are shown in figure ( 4 ) .Figure ( 4 ) : Isenthalpic curves and the enthalpy inversion curve ( Taylor ) .Adiabatic Procedures:Adiabatic means the procedure during which the heat is prevented from traversing the boundary of the system ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . The system is thermally insulated from the environing conditions, so for adiabatic procedure the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics is reduced to the alteration in internal energy peers the work done by the system or on the system.Figure ( 5 ) : Adiabatic procedure in P-V diagram ( G.F.C. Rogers ) .What is Thermochemistry:Thermochemistry is the survey of energy produced or absorbed in chemical reactions and any physical transmutation such as runing or boiling. Thermochemistry, by and large, is concerned with the energy exchange attach toing transmutations, such as commixture, stage passages, chemical r eactions, and including computations of such measures as the heat capacity, heat of burning, heat of formation, heat content, and free energy ( E.H. Cole ) . Thermochemistry remainders on two generalisations. Stated in modern footings, they are as follows: Lavoisier and Laplace ‘s jurisprudence ( 1780 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is equal and antonym of energy alteration attach toing the contrary procedure. Hess ‘s jurisprudence ( 1840 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is the same whether the procedure occurs in one measure or many.Figure ( 6 ) : Energy motion ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .What is Calorimetry:The word calorimetry was derived from the lateen word calor which means heat and Greek word metry which means step ; it is the scientific discipline of mensurating the sum of heat. To mensurate the energy produced from certain fuel or affair calorimeter is used. Calorimeter is a device consists of barrel filled with H2O and a bomb filled with fuel ( oil fuel or coal ) besides and electric circuit is used to bring forth electrical signal to fire the discharge inside the bomb, after that the heat transportations to the H2O inside the calorimeter, by mensurating the initial and concluding H2O temperature and cognizing the H2O sum in the calorimeter, the sum of heat green goods from the fuel discharge can be estimated. The figure below shows the calorimeter.Fi gure ( 7 ) : Calorimeter ( E.H. Cole ) .Second Law of Thermodynamicss:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics is the jurisprudence of heat and power, it can be expressed as: It is impossible to do an engine to run in a ( thermodynamics ) rhythm, in which the lone interactions are positive work done on the milieus and heat transportation from a system which remains at changeless temperature ( E.H. Cole ) .Figure ( 8 ) : The schematic of 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The undermentioned expression of the jurisprudence has been proposed: It is impossible to build a heat-engine rhythm which will bring forth merely the consequence of lifting a weight ( net work or shaft work ) if heat is exchanged with a individual thermal reservoir ( Max Planck ) , and heat can non of itself flow from a colder to a hotter system ( Rudolf Clausius ) .Carnot Cycle:Said Carnot a Gallic scientist of the early 19th century, he proposed a heat engine rhythm based on the 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics. Carnot said that the work by the heat engine rhythm increased by increasing the temperature differences between the hot and the cold reservoirs ( Leonard ) . So the efficiency of Carnot rhythm depends on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.Figure ( 9 ) : Caront rhythm in Pressure-Volume diagram, ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The public presentation of heat engine rhythm nine expressed as the dividend divided by the cost, the intent of power rhythm is to present shaft work, which is the dividend. The cost depends on the heat suppl y from the hot reservoir.Third jurisprudence of Thermodynamicss and absolute information:The Third Law of Thermodynamics is the lesser known of the three major thermodynamic Torahs. Together, these Torahs help organize the foundations of modern scientific discipline. The Torahs of thermodynamics are absolute physical Torahs everything in the discernible existence is capable to them. Like clip or gravitation, nil in the existence is exempt from these Torahs. In its simplest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics relates the information ( entropy ) of affair to its absolute temperature ( G.F.C Rogers ) . The Third Law of Thermodynamics refers to a province known as â€Å" absolute nothing. † This is the bottom point on the Kelvin temperature graduated table. The Kelvin graduated table is absolute, intending 0A ° Kelvin is mathematically the lowest possible temperature in the existence. This corresponds to about -273.15A ° Celsius, or -459.7 Fahrenheit. In actuality, no object or system can hold a temperature of nothing Kelvin, because of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law, in portion, implies that heat can ne'er spontaneously move from a colder organic structure to a hotter organic structure. So, as a system approaches absolute zero, it will finally hold to pull energy from whatever systems are nearby. If it draws energy, it can ne'er obtain absolute nothing. So, this province is non physically possible, but is a mathematical bound of the existence. In its shortest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics says: â€Å" The information of a pure perfect crystal is zero ( 0 ) at nothing Kelvin ( 0A ° K ) . † Entropy is a belongings of affair and energy discussed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Third Law of Thermodynamics means that as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its information approaches a changeless ( for pure perfect crystals, this invariable is zero ) . A pure perfect crystal is one in which every molecule is indistinguishable, and the molecular alliance is absolutely even throughout the substance. For non-pure crystals, or those with less-than perfect alliance, there will be some energy associated with the imperfectnesss, so the information can non go nothing. The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by believing about H2O. Water in gas signifier has molecules that can travel about really freely. Water vapour has really high information ( entropy ) . As the gas cools, it becomes liquid. The liquid H2O molecules can still travel about, but non as freely. They have lost some information. When the H2O cools farther, it becomes solid ice. The solid H2O molecules can no longer travel freely, but can merely vibrate within the ice crystals. The information is now really low. As the H2O is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the quiver of the molecules diminishes. If the solid H2O reached absolute nothing, all molecul ar gesture would halt wholly. At this point, the H2O would hold no information ( entropy ) at all.Standards of Equilibrium:The province of system is determined by the molecules within the system boundaries. The equilibrium has different significances, if we have material in solid or liquid stage we said that stuff is in stage equilibrium if its stage does non alter. Besides if the province of the stuff is changeless we said that stuff in thermodynamic equilibrium ( William C. Reynolds ) . The macroscopic belongingss that can in rule be measured as a map of the thermodynamic equilibrium province and that are in some manner relevant to energy are called thermodynamic equilibrium. Any conglomerate characteristic of all the molecules, such as their entire energy, is a thermodynamic belongings. When the province is fixed the thermodynamics belongingss are fixed.13. Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy:The thermodynamics potencies consists of four measures, these measures are internal energy, the heat content, the Helmholtz free energy and the Gibbs free energy. So Helmholtz and Gibbs are portion of thermodynamics possible. The Helmholtz free energy depends on the internal energy, temperature, and information. Equation below shows the relation between internal energy, absolute temperature, and information in Helmholtz free energy equation. Gibbs free energy as shown in equation below depends on internal energy, absolute temperature, information, absolute force per unit area, and the concluding volume. The four thermodynamic potencies are related by beginnings of the â€Å" energy from the environment † term TS and the â€Å" enlargement work † term PV. A mnemotechnic diagram suggested by Schroeder can assist you maintain path of the relationships between the four thermodynamic potencies.14. Hess ‘s jurisprudence:Hess ‘s jurisprudence states that the energy alteration in any chemical or physical reaction does non depend on the way or figure of stairss required to finish this reaction.Figure ( 10 ) : Chemical reaction stairss with energy sum.The I†H for a individual reaction can be calculated from the difference between the heats of formation of the merchandises minus the heat of formation of the reactants. In mathematical footings:15. Clausius-Clapeyron equation:The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the fluctuation of force per unit area with temperature along the saturated-vapor ( or liquid ) line to the heat content and volume of vaporisation. Th is equation is utile in building a graphical or tabular equation of province from a lower limit of experimental measurings ( Williams C. Reynolds ) . The clausius-Clapeyron equation allows gauging the vapor force per unit area at any temperature if the heat content of vaporisation and vapor force per unit area at some temperatures are known,16. Ideal Solution and Non-ideal Solution:In chemical science, an ideal solution or ideal mixture is a solution in which the heat content of solution ( or â€Å" heat content of blending † ) is zero ; [ 1 ] the closer to zero the heat content of solution is, the more â€Å" ideal † the behaviour of the solution becomes. Equivalently, an ideal mixture is one in which the activity coefficients ( which step divergence from ideality ) are equal to one ( Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia ) . A solution whose behaviour does non conform to that of an ideal solution ; that is, the behaviour is non predictable over a broad scope of concentrations and temperatures by the usage of Raoult ‘s jurisprudence. In contrast to ideal solutions, where volumes are purely linear and commixture is ever complete, the volume of a non-ideal solution is non, in general, the simple amount of the volumes of the component pure liquids and solubility is non guaranteed over the whole composing scope.Figure ( 11 ) : Behavior of non ideal solutions.17. Statistical mechanics:Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics is a mathematical tool trades with high population or informations. It ‘s related with macroscopic thermodynamic belongingss such as work, information, free energy, and heat. Ludwig Boltzmann is the male parent of statistical thermodynamics ; he started the work in statistical mechanics in 1870.18. Raoult ‘s Law /MIXTURES:The partial vapour force per unit area of a constituent in a mixture is equal to the vapour force per unit area of the pure constituent at that temperature multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. Raoult ‘s Law merely works for ideal mixtures In equation signifier, for a mixture of liquids A and B, this reads ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/phaseeqia/idealpd.html ) : In this equation, PA and PB are the partial vapor force per unit areas of the constituents A and B. In any mixture of gases, each gas exerts its ain force per unit area. This is called its partial force per unit area and is independent of the other gases present. Even if you took all the other gases off, the staying gas would still be exercising its ain partial force per unit area. The entire vapor force per unit area of the mixture is equal to the amount of the single partial force per unit areas. The Po values are the vapour force per unit areas of A and B if they were on their ain as pure liquids. xA and xB are the mole fractions of A and B. That is precisely what it says it is – the fraction of the entire figure of moles present which is A or B. mole fraction utilizing, for illustration:19. Reversible/irreversible/Adiabatic/isobaric/isothermal/Isochoric procedures:The reversible procedure is the procedure that the system takes topographic point one time and returns to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The irreversible procedure, this procedure done when the system undergoes certain procedure it transferred from province and can non return to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Adiabatic procedure, this done when the system transferred from one province to another without heat transportation to environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isobar procedure, it is a procedure with changeless force per unit area [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isothermal procedure, the system transferred from province to another at changeless temperature [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isochoric procedure, procedure with changeless volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 12 ) : The thermodynamics processes [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .20. Heat of Vaporization:Heat of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation is the sum of heat needed to reassign certain sum of affair from liquid province to vapor province. Heat of vaporisation depends on the affair itself, its sum ( mass ) , and the temperature. Table below shows the heat of vaporisation of H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . No. Temperature ( Co ) Heat of Vaporization kJ/kg ) 1 5 2489.6 2 10 2477.7 3 15 2465.9 4 20 2454.1 5 25 2442.3 6 30 2430.5Table ( 1 ) : Heat of Vaporization for H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .21. Restricting Procedures:Restricting procedure done when fluid go throughing through valve or sudden reduction in country, the flow is steady and the force per unit area Idaho drooped across the valve ; in the choking procedure the heat content is changeless, so the choking procedure is a procedure with changeless heat content. One application of restricting procedure is the restricting calorimeter, restricting calorimeter is a device used to find the quality of a two stage liquid-vapor mixture [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 13 ) : Restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .22. Joule Thomson Coefficient:Joule-Thomson coefficient relates to the choking procedure, it ‘s the consequence of divergence of temperature bead to coerce bead for a steady province, steady flow through partly opening valve. The equation below shows Joule-Thomson coefficient: Positive Joule-Thomson coefficient means that there is temperature bead during the choking procedure, but when it is negative the temperature rises during the restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .23. Maxwell ‘s Relationss:Maxwell dealingss are mathematical dealingss for compressible fluids, this relation are related four belongingss, the thermodynamics belongingss in Maxwell dealingss are force per unit area ( P ) , Temperature ( T ) , specific volume ( V ) , and information ( S ) . Maxwell dealingss are summarized in three positions as shown below, the first position the basic equation, the 2nd position the Maxwell relation, and the last position is the working equation [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Basic equationMaxwell RelationWorking EquationWhere: Uracils: internal energy. CP: specific heat under changeless force per unit area. Thymine: Temperature. Curriculum vitae: specfic heat under changeless specific volume. Phosphorus: Pressure. Volts: Volume. Second: Information. Hydrogen: Enthaply.24. Chemical equilibrium in gases:Thermodynamicss equilibrium are established when no alteration in macroscopic belongings is obtained that is intend the system is isolated from the milieus. The equilibrium is classified to three types ‘ mechanical equilibrium, chemical equilibrium, and thermic equilibrium. In chemical equilibrium there is no reaction or affair transportation from one portion of the system to another portion ( P.K. NAG ) . The system may be in mechanical equilibrium yet the system may undergo self-generated Change of internal construction due to chemical potency, such as chemical reaction or a transportation of affair, the system so is said to be in chemical equilibrium if all interactions or alterations in the system cease to take topographic point. A burning mixture of O and gasolene is non in chemical equilibrium one time the mixture is ignited.25. Statements of the Second Law/ Kelvin /Planck/Clausius Statement:Kelvin-Planck statement:It is impossible to build a device which, runing in a rhythm, will bring forth no consequence other that raising of a weight and chilling of heat reservoir ( M.L. Mathur ) . It is impossible to build a cyclic device whose consequence is to pull out heat from a heat reservoir and wholly change over into work ( M.L. Mathur ) .Clausius statementIt is impossible to build a cyclic device which will bring forth no consequence other than the transportation of heat from a low temperature beginning to high temperature heat beginning ( M.L. Mathur ) . The heat can non flux by itself ( with out the aid of an external bureau ) from low temperature to high temperature ( M.L. Mathur ) .Figure ( 14 ) : This is non possible ( Kelvin-Planck ) .26. Information of a Mixture of Ideal Gases/ Gibbs-Dalton ‘s Law:The Gibbs-Dalton equation trades with gas mixture belongingss, the entire thermodynamic belongings of a mixture of ideal gases is the amount of the belongingss that the single gases would hold if each occupied the entire mixture volume entirely at the mixture temperature, ( M.L. Mathur ) , besides the mathematical signifier of Gibbs-Dalton equation as shown below:No.MeasureEquation1 Internal Energy 2 Heat content 3 Specific heat under changeless force per unit area 4 Specific heat under changeless specific volumeTable ( 2 ) : Gas mixture equations ( M.L. Mathur ) .27. Handiness:Handiness is the system maximal available energy. This non merely depends on the given province of the system but besides on the concluding province to which the system has to be taken and mode in which it is done. When handiness of the system is required to be determined so the concluding province of system ought to be dead province ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned points should be observed when finding the handiness of any system: The concluding province of the system is dead province. The system undergoes alteration of province by a reversible procedure. The construct of handiness introduce wholly a new and good construct in the field of heat engines where overall thermic efficiency, obtained on the footing of entire chemical energy of the fuel was the lone footing for comparing engines and their public presentation.28. Real Gases /Virial Equation of State /Van der Waals Equation of State:The continuity of liquids and gases were studied by Van der Waals, the equation of equation of province for gas was obtained in 1873, and the general signifier of Van der Waals equation is: Where: a: changeless measures the cohesive forces. B: changeless accounts the volume of gas molecules. V: specific volume. : Universal gas invariable. Thymine: Absolute gas temperature. The restrictions of Van der Waals equation are ( M.L. Mathur ) : The invariables a and B are measured changeless for a substance where as they are non ; this has been proved theoretically every bit good as by experimentation. The p-v secret plan of Van der Waals equation differs from Andrews secret plan. The value of the critical volume obtained from Van der Waals equation Al coefficient is 3b as compared to its experimental determine value of 2b for the moist substances. The critical coefficient is 0.375 for Van der Waals gas equation but from experiments it was from 0.2 to 0.3 for most substances.29. Fugacity:Fugacity ( degree Fahrenheit ) was used in the first clip by Lewis, the value of fugacity approaches the value of force per unit area as the missive tends to zero, when the ideal gas conditions applies. The derived function of the Gibbs map of an ideal gas undergoing an isothermal procedure is ( P.K.NAG ) : aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ ( 6 ) aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦.. ( 7 ) For an ideal gas the fugacity f equal the gas force per unit area P, fugacity has the same dimensions as force per unit area.Figure ( 15 ) : Fugacity with temperature.30. Dalton ‘s Law, Raoult ‘s Law, Henry ‘s Law:Dalton states that the force per unit area of a mixture of gases is equal to the amount of the partial force per unit area of each component. This can be easy done utilizing perfect gas equation for component every bit good as for the mixture ( M.L. Mathur ) . Raoult ‘s jurisprudence [ for F. M. Raoult, a Gallic physicist and chemist ] provinces that the add-on of solute to a liquid lessens the inclination for the liquid to go a solid or a gas, i.e. , reduces the freeze point and the vapor force per unit area ( see solution ) . For illustration, the add-on of salt to H2O causes the H2O to stop dead below its normal freezing point ( 0A °C ) and to boil above its normal boiling point ( 100A °C ) . Qualitatively, depression of the freeze point and decrease of the vapour force per unit area are due to a lowering of the concentration of H2O molecules, since the more solute is added, the less the per centum of H2O molecules in the solution as a whole and therefore the less their inclination to organize into a crystal solid or to get away as a gas. Quantitatively, Raoult ‘s jurisprudence states that the dissolver ‘s vapor force per unit area in solution is equal to its mole fraction times its vapor force per unit area as a p ure liquid, from which it follows that the freeze point depression and boiling point lift are straight relative to the mode of the solute, although the invariables of proportion are different in each instance. This mathematical relation, nevertheless, is accurate merely for dilute solutions. The fact that an appropriate solute can both lower the freeze point and raise the boiling point of a pure liquid is the footing for year-round antifreeze for car chilling systems. In the winter the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of the H2O, forestalling it from stop deading at its normal freezing point ; in the summer it guards against furuncle over by raising the boiling point of the H2O. In chemical science, Henry ‘s jurisprudence is one of the gas Torahs, formulated by William Henry in 1803. It states that: At a changeless temperature, the sum of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is straight relative to the partial force per unit area of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid. An tantamount manner of saying the jurisprudence is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a peculiar temperature is relative to the force per unit area of that gas above the liquid. Henry ‘s jurisprudence has since been shown to use for a broad scope of dilute solutions, non simply those of gases. An mundane illustration of Henry ‘s jurisprudence is given by carbonated soft drinks. Before the bottle or can is opened, the gas above the drink is about pure C dioxide at a force per unit area somewhat higher than atmospheric force per unit area. The drink itself contains dissolved C dioxide. When the bottle or can is opened, some of this gas escap es, giving the characteristic hushing ( or â€Å" dad † in the instance of a bubbly bottle ) . Because the force per unit area above the liquid is now lower, some of the dissolved C dioxide comes out of solution as bubbles. If a glass of the drink is left in the unfastened, the concentration of C dioxide in solution will come into equilibrium with the C dioxide in the air, and the drink will travel â€Å" level † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law ) .31. Lost Work Rate, Irreversibility Rate, Availability Loss:Information is produced as a consequence of irreversibilities present in the procedure, this may explicate with the aid of construct of lost work. The doomed in work is zero in a reversible procedure and it increases with the addition in irreversibility of the procedure till it becomes maximal in instance of wholly irreversible procedure. The lost work is therefore defined as the difference of work obtained in a reversible procedure and existent procedure ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned notes for the work lost should be taken: For a reversible procedure when the work lost is zero the alteration in information is given by: The information of a system can be increased by two ways, foremost by adding heat to the system or by holding it undergoes an irreversible procedure. The addition in entropy due to work lost is called entropy production. For an adiabatic procedure, the alteration in information is associated with irreversibilities merely.32. Irreversibility and Entropy of an Isolated System:The information of an stray system can ne'er diminish. This is known as the rule of addition of information. An stray system can ever be formed by including any system and its milieus within a individual boundary. Some times the original system which is so merely a portion of the stray system called a subsystem. The system and milieus together include every thing which is affected by the procedure ( P.K. NAG ) . Information may be decreased locally at some part within the stray system. But it must be compensated by a greater addition of information some where within the system so that the net consequence of an irreversible procedure is an entropy addition of the hole system. The entropy addition of an stray system is a step of the extent of an irreversibility of the procedure undergone by the system. The information of an stray system ever increases and becomes a upper limit at the province of equilibrium. When the system is at equilibrium any imaginable alteration information would be zero.33. Reversible and Irreversible Procedures:A reversible procedure ( ideal procedure ) is one which is performed in such a manner that at the decision of the procedure, both the system and milieus may be restored to their initial provinces, with out bring forthing any alterations in the remainder of the existence. Let the stare of a system be represented by A and allow the system be taken to province B by following the way AB. If the system and besides milieus are restored to their initial provinces and no alteration in the existence is produced, so the procedure AiB will be reversible procedure. In the contrary procedure the system has to be taken from province B to A by following the same way BiA ( P.K. NAG ) . Any irreversible ( natural ) procedure carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible procedure. A reversible procedure, which consists of a sequence of equilibrium provinces, is an idealised conjectural procedure.Figure ( 16 ) : Reversible procedure ( P.K. NAG ) .33. Dynamicss: Chemical reaction rates, half lives:Half-life is the period of clip it takes for a substance undergoing decay to diminish by half. The name originally was used to depict a feature of unstable atoms ( radioactive decay ) , but may use to any measure which follows a set-rate decay. The original term, dating to 1907, was â€Å" half-life period † , which was later shortened to â€Å" half-life † sometime in the early 1950s. Half-lives are really frequently used to depict measures undergoing exponential decay-for illustration radioactive decay-where the half life is changeless over the whole life of the decay, and is a characteristic unit ( a natural unit of graduated table ) for the exponential decay equation. However, a half life can besides be defined for non-exponential decay procedures, although in these instances the half life varies throughout the decay procedure. For a general debut and description of exponential decay, see the article exponential decay. For a general debut and description of non-exponential decay, see the article rate jurisprudence. An exponential decay procedure can be described by any of the undermentioned three tantamount expression: where N0: is the initial measure of the thing that will disintegrate ( this measure may be measured in gms, moles, figure of atoms, etc. ) , National trust: is the measure that still remains and has non yet decayed after a clip T, t1 / 2: is the half life of the decaying measure, I„ : is a positive figure called the mean life-time of the decaying measure, I » : is a positive figure called the decay invariable of the decaying measure.34. Temperature, force per unit area and i?„G:Gibbs equation shows the relation between force per unit area, temperature, and the alteration in free energy. The equation below shows that relation. G ( P, T ) = U + pV a?’ TS which is the same as: G ( P, T ) = H a?’ TS where: Uracil: is the internal energy ( SI unit: J ) P: is force per unit area ( SI unit: pascal ) Volt: is volume ( SI unit: M3 ) Thymine: is the temperature ( SI unit: K ) Second: is the information ( SI unit: J per K ) Hydrogen: is the heat content ( SI unit: J )35. Information and Disorder:Work is a macroscopic construct. Work involves orderly gesture of molecules as in the enlargement or compaction of a gas. The kinetic energy and possible energy of a system represent orderly signifiers of energy. The kinetic energy of a gas is due to the co-ordinated gesture of all the molecules with the same mean speed in the same way. The possible energy is due to vantage place taken by the molecules or supplantings of molecules from their normal place. It may province approximately that the information of a system is a step of the grade of molecular upset bing in the system.Figure ( 17 ) : Information and upset ( www.physcis.com ) .36. Osmotic force per unit area / Arrhenius Law:The Arrhenius equation is a simple, but unusually accurate, expression for the temperature dependance of the rate invariable, and hence, rate of a chemical reaction. The equation was foremost proposed by the Dutch chemist J. H. new wave ‘t Hoff in 1884 ; five old ages subsequently in 1889, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius provided a physical justification and reading for it. Nowadays it is best seen as an empirical relationship. [ 2 ] It can be used to pattern the temperature-variance of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. A historically utile generalisation supported by the Arrhenius equation is that, for many common chemical reactions at room temperature, the reaction rate doubles for every 10 grade Celsius addition in temperature ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation ) . In short, the Arrhenius equation gives â€Å" the dependance of the rate changeless K of chemical reactions on the temperature T ( in absolute temperature, such as Ks or grades Rankine ) and activation energy Ea, as shown below:37. Partition maps:In statistical mechanics, the divider map Z is an of import measure that encodes the statistical belongingss of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is a map of temperature and other parametric quantities, such as the volume enveloping a gas. Most of the aggregative thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the entire energy, free energy, information, and force per unit area, can be expressed in footings of the divider map or its derived functions. There are really several different types of divider maps, each matching to different types of statistical ensemble ( or, equivalently, different types of free energy. ) The canonical divider map applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to interchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and figure of atoms. The expansive canonical divider map applies to a expansive canonical ensemble, in which the system can interchange both heat and atoms with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potency. Other types of divider maps can be defined for different fortunes ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . pi: indicate atom impulse. eleven: indicate atom places. d3: is a stenography notation functioning as a reminder that the pi and eleven are vectors in three dimensional infinite.38. Le Chatelier ‘s rule for Temperature:In 1884, the Gallic Chemist Henri Le Chatelier suggested that equilibrium systems tend to counterbalance for the effects of unhinging influences. When a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium place will switch in the way which tends to minimise, or counteract, the consequence of the perturbation ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) ..If the concentration of a solute reactant is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the added reactants by bring forthing more merchandises. If the force per unit area on an equilibrium system is increased, so the equilibrium place displacements to cut down the force per unit area. If the volume of a gaseous equilibrium system is reduced ( tantamount to an addition in force per unit area ) so the equilibrium place displacements to increase the volume ( tantamount to a lessening in force per unit area ) If the temperature of an endothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more merchandises. If the temperature of an exothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more reactants.39. Colligative belongingss:Colligative belongingss are the belongingss of the solution based on the figure of molecules per unit volume of the solution. Colligative belongingss include the vapor force per unit area, boiling and stop deading point, and osmotic force per unit area ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . The vapor force per unit area of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor force per unit area of each chemical constituent and the mole fraction of the constituent nowadays in the solution. The boiling temperature of the solution before making the vapour stage, the freeze point is the lowest temperature of the solution before it transferred to solid province. The osmotic force per unit area of a dilute solution at changeless temperature is straight relative to its concentration. The osmotic force per unit area of a solution is straight relative to its absolute temperature.40. Information and the Clausius inequality:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new belongings called information, a quantitative step of microscopic upset for a system. Entropy is a step of energy that is no longer available to execute utile work within the current environment. To obtain the working definition of information and, therefore, the 2nd jurisprudence, allow ‘s deduce the Clausius inequality. See a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in bend gives up heat to a piston-cylinder device as shown below ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) .Figure ( 18 ) : Piston-cylinder device.