Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Essay Example

Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Essay Example Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Paper Jane eyre by charlotte bronte Red Room Paper Jane Eyre is a classic romance novel by Charlotte Bronte (in the first person) that was published in 1847; by Smith, Elder Company, London. Charlotte Bronte first published the book as Jane Eyre: an Autobiography under the pseudonym Currer Bell. The protagonist and main character in this novel is Jane Eyre; orphaned at the mere age of one due to the death of both her parents, currently aged ten. When Jane was orphaned, her mothers brother offered to take Jane in and care for her, he then died however before he died he made his wife Mrs. Reed promise to look after Jane as if Jane was her own she agreed. Currently aged 10, Jane lives at Gateshead with: Mrs. Reed, Georgiana, Eliza and John Reed; whom all despise Jane and treat her with confounding cruelty especially John Reed he struck suddenly and strongly Jane feels like an outsider to her family environment `A heart saddened by the chidings of Bessie, the nurse, and humbled by the consciousness of my physical inferiority to Eliza, John, and Georgiana Reed. ` Bessie chides Jane extensively more than her cousins, also the quote shows that the way Jane feels about herself has been largely influenced by the perception of the other family members. In chapter one Jane had been excluded as a full family member. ` She really must exclude me from privileges intended only for contented, happy, little children. ` As a result Jane slipped in the breakfast-room that adjoined the drawing-room and possessed herself a book which she began to read; Bronte shows Janes character as very independent and mature for her age, it shows she has a mind of her own also it shows she does not give up and is not easily defeated. During Victorian times children who were orphaned with no money, being at the mercy of their benefactors, usually looked at life as being a constant struggle as there were not many choices one could make to guarantee survival and were often seen as obligated to follow the orders of their benefactors; do as they were told and look up to the rest of the family because the orphan was now dependent. At the end of chapter 1 Jane tries to remain unnoticed in the drawing room reading on a rainy day, but John Reed, the fourteen-year-old son of Mrs. Reed, soon finds her. Jane lives in terror of John, as he bullies and punishes her without end. John becomes angry that Jane is reading one of their books, and says that: she is a dependent there, has no money, and should not live [there] with gentlemens children like [them]. John throws the book at Jane, causing her to fall and cut her head against the door. Jane then fights against him, and when Mrs. Reed enters the room she sends Jane to be locked in the red-room. The Red room symbolizes Janes character Bronte shows this in the form of pathetic fallacy; red is often used in conjunction with the themes of passion and fury, and the descriptions such as the curtains of deep red damask mirror physically Janes passionate character. I resisted. Bronte uses first person narrative to convey Janes anger and defiance; Janes state of mind has changed because she is angry she is treated and viewed as a second class to the Reed household which makes her want to fight back/rebel. The juxtaposition and metaphor of Brontes description of Jane as a rebel slave shows the reader Jane is conscious of her rebellion, also it shows the reader and emphasizes the point Jane is rebelling her wrongful placement of a lower-class status to the rest of the Reed household. Although in the times of today this would seem unjust, in Victorian times, this is the way all orphans were treated especially and girls who had an even lower rank but Jane was surprisingly, for an orphan, well educated and so had developed her own views on her difficult situation, thus enabling her to act accordingly. Brontes use of the simile shes like a wild cat creates a vivid image of Janes behavior in the readers mind and also shows Janes excessively passionate character. Master! How is he my master? Am I a servant? Brontes cluster of three and use of sequential rhetorical questions again shows how passionate Jane is about being seen as an equal in the Reed household. Bronte conveys Janes feelings of ignominy; this preparation for bonds, and the additional ignominy it inferred, took a little of the excitement out of me. Janes state of mind has changed seeing the immense degree of humility it inferred and so made the decision to pull her behavior together in order to avoid being further extensively humiliated. During Victorian times many orphans were abused and publically disgraced. Bronte uses metaphors to convey Janes feelings of being trapped; the Red Room itself is described as: a vault, `chamber. The reason for Janes change in state of mind is due to Brontes use of these metaphors which gives the room prison like qualities which creates the element of being trapped. Brontes strong use of imagery, colours, repetition and her use of pathetic fallacy of colours associated with red; Mahogany, crimson and pink show Janes state of mind as angry at being locked in the Red Room on the other hand, Brontes use of the simile like a pale throne suggests Brontes use of the simile `tiny phantoms` gives the scene a scary atmosphere and has a ghostly effect, also it sows the building accumulation of fear in Jane. Brontes use of other similes such as; `half fairy` `half imp` implies the room had stimulated Janes imagination furthermore the mirror may symbolizes Janes inner self. During Victorian times they genuinely believed in super superstitions; during mourning a death mirrors were covered because of a lingering superstition that the spirit of the deceased could become trapped in the reflective glass ` Superstition was with me at that moment`. The metaphor `revolted slave` shows the reader Jane still feels to rebel despite her fears, also again Bronte refers to the theme of slavery, which shows yet again Jane feels trapped she has no freedom, Jane does not want to be in the red room but has no choice. This was the case during Victorian times; orphans had no choice, no say in the matter, orphans had no free will. Janes education and knowledge provided her with a basis to understand her situation, and act impulsively which results in a revolt a rebellion. Jane feels isolated; because shes in so much shock she must think deeply, and gather her thoughts. `I was like nobody there`

Overview of Social Phenomenology

Overview of Social Phenomenology Social phenomenology is an approach within the field of sociology that aims to reveal what role human awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations and social worlds. In essence, phenomenology is the belief that society is a human construction. Phenomenology was originally developed by a German mathematician named Edmund Husserl in the early 1900s in order to locate the sources or essences of reality in the human consciousness. It wasn’t until the 1960s that it entered the field of sociology by Alfred Schutz, who sought to provide a philosophical foundation for Max Weber’s interpretive sociology. He did this by applying the phenomenological philosophy of Husserl to the study of the social world. Schutz postulated that it is subjective meanings that give rise to an apparently objective social world. He argued that people depend upon language and the â€Å"stock of knowledge† they have accumulated to enable social interaction. All social interaction requires that individuals characterize others in their world, and their stock of knowledge helps them with this task. The central task in social phenomenology is to explain the reciprocal interactions that take place during human action, situational structuring, and reality construction. That it, phenomenologists seek to make sense of the relationships between action, situation, and reality that take place in society. Phenomenology does not view any aspect as causal, but rather views all dimensions as fundamental to all others. Application Of Social Phenomenology One classic application of social phenomenology was done by Peter Berger and Hansfried Kellner in 1964 when they examined the social construction of marital reality. According to their analysis, marriage brings together two individuals, each from different lifeworlds, and puts them into such close proximity to each other that the lifeworld of each is brought into communication with the other. Out of these two different realities emerges one marital reality, which then becomes the primary social context from which that individual engages in social interactions and functions in society. Marriage provides a new social reality for people, which is achieved mainly through conversations with their spouse in private. Their new social reality is also strengthened through the couple’s interaction with others outside of the marriage. Over time a new marital reality will emerge that will contribute to the formation of new social worlds within which each spouse would function.

Thomas Jefferson's view on slavery Research Paper

Thomas Jefferson's view on slavery - Research Paper Example In his life, Jefferson appears to have contradicted his writing, views, deeds and thoughts on the issue of slavery (Bernstein 56). Jefferson as an opponent against slavery As a young legislator and president, Jefferson took actions that he thought would aid in ending slavery. As a young legislator in Virginia, he had tried to advocate the private land owners to free their slaves. This was, however, unsuccessful as private land owners viewed this as a way towards economic downfall. They used slaves as cheap labor in their plantations and thus, if they had supported Jefferson in his advocacy for slavery end, they would have suffered economically. Although he failed in his advocacy for slavery abolishment by private land owners, Jefferson later returned to draft a bill barring freed blacks from staying in Virginia. He drafted a Virginia law prohibiting the importation of enslaved blacks into the state (Zinn 120). He was successful in the passage of this bill. Nevertheless, it is viewed that the private land owners in his state passed the bill to raise the price of slaves who were already their captives. In 1784, Jefferson forwarded a proposal to ban slavery in the newly created territories of the northwest. As the principal author of the land ordinance of 1784, he called for an end to slavery and involuntary servitude in these territories. Jefferson wanted a line to be drawn depicting the north and south at which slavery should not be extended westwards of the impassable line. This bill, however, was defeated by a single vote. Jefferson also proposed in the mid 1770s for a means through which those born into slavery could be freed. He referred to this as gradual emancipation by which after a certain date, those who were born into slavery became freed. In his advocacy for gradual emancipation of slaves, Jefferson wanted slaves to be resettled out of the United States, or they be returned to Africa (Spahn 65). He believed that once slaves were freed, the oppression they had suffered under their masters would breed hatred for their masters. He saw to it that the slaves would instigate violence on their former masters. It is in this thought that he believed the best plan would be to resettle slaves out of America. These actions show the efforts by Jefferson, while still a legislator, to end and stop slavery at the time. As president, in 1807, Jefferson signed an act which prohibited importation of slaves. This act helped to outlaw international slave trade in the United States although it took effect almost a year later. Jefferson was also the chief author of the declaration of independence in which he strongly argued against slavery (Zinn 49). Through the declaration of independence, he noted that slavery opposed nature which calls for every human being to be treated and respected equally. He called the institution to be immoral and not just. In his first draft of the declaration, he noted that every man was equal, and slavery did not replicate this but only caused oppression and death to those held captive. These statements represent Jefferson’s stance on slavery which he opposed. Thomas Jefferson’s views on slavery also became noted through his use of strong words in which he called for an end to the institution. Through his writing and correspondence with political and business associates, his strong words against slavery stood out. His

Project Managment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Managment - Assignment Example The company considered setting up its own Information Systems Department to develop (or adapt) software for the robots to match its customers requirements, but decided instead to outsource this task to companies. Now is one of the largest manufacturers of industrial robots in UK. One robot responds by moving through the warehouse picking appropriate shelving and framework timber for this product and delivering it to the assembly room. (Based on their identification code, appropriate software allows the robot to access a list of components required, and to find where in the warehouse they are stored.) Another robot, in the assembly room, puts these parts together (using glue or bolts where appropriate) to make the bookshelf. It moves the completed bookshelf to a nearby holding area ready for loading onto a truck. The computer system (in addition to controlling the robots) should keep track of the stock of each type of shelf and frame component that has been used and so be able to report when stock replenishment is required. Time - The amount of time required to complete the project. ... The computer system (in addition to controlling the robots) should keep track of the stock of each type of shelf and frame component that has been used and so be able to report when stock replenishment is required. Criteria of Success For success of the project at The Shelf Company Proposal document. In broad terms you will oversee a project that will involve: The delivery, installation and testing of two industrial robots. The installation of a minicomputer system to be used as the centralised storage and processing unit for use by the two robots at TSC. The installation of terminal and peripheral devices in the control centre, and cabling to the mini and to the parts of the warehouse where the robots will operate. Develop documentation for the new system, suitable for use by staff at TSC. Organising and overseeing the training of staff on the new system. Assumption Project Management tries to gain control over some variables: Time - The amount of time required to complete the project. Typically broken down for analytical purposes into the time required to complete the components of the project, which is then further broken down into the time required to complete each task contributing to the completion of each component. Cost - Calculated from the time variable. Cost to develop an internal project is time multiplied by the cost of the team members involved. When hiring an independent consultant for a project, cost will typically be determined by the consultant or firm's hourly rate multiplied by an estimated time to complete. Quality - The amount of time put into individual tasks determines the overall quality of the project. Some tasks may require a given amount of time to complete adequately, but given more time could be

The Reign of Henry VII Essay Example for Free

The Reign of Henry VII Essay The lineage of her house of York Margaret of Burgundy was guiding and educating Warbeck of his family ancestry, he was to understand the Yorkist rebellions and the perspective in England if he is to be a convincing threat of opposition. Their recent disaster Cornish rebellions had been appalling, the revolts of the peasants against the new King had failed. Warbeck knew of the uprising to strike again and saw this as his perfect opportunity to attack alongside, with such support he could easily have worried Henry. Document B shows evidence that Warbeck had little support in Scotland and was loosing it within Ireland, possibly due to the bonds and act of attainder. Henry had previously had the nobility sign. He learnt of a forthcoming attack from the Cornish, and so made his way to help them in their battle. It is not suggested that he was invited or that he even had support, until he was ashore. Document C suggests that he must have been invited because he had so little men and once in port had the aid of over 8,000 peasants. It is in Cornwall that he was acclaimed King Richard. Document D appears to paint a similar picture but yet different perspective to why Warbeck left Scotland. It states that Warbeck was the cause of the whole war between the Scotch and English. With this in mind, and the idea of the problem Warbeck could pose for Scotland, it is possible that he was enforced to look for support elsewhere rather than cause a battle. Document A impresses the reader with Warbecks strong qualities and his participation on the duping of King Henry VII. He is both willing and strong-minded and partakes in the education Margaret of Burgundy provides for him on his ancestry and his role within England. His actions suggest he is comfortable with portraying on opposition to the King, despite his threat being false. With this in mind, the evidence in Document E is contradictory in its approach. It should be noted that this source is written by Warbeck himself and might have been writing to depict a used and exploited young man, rather than the strong character he was thought to be. Document E describes in detail the ordeals Warbeck was dutiful in, but the tone implies his actions occurred against his will. Looking at both Documents, it is apparent that both relay a chain of events. However, the fact that both have different perspectives suggests that further resources are needed to analyse the character of Warbeck and therefore show the reliability of the extracts. Perkin Warbeck was a serious threat to Henry VII only because of the backing he gained outside England. Warbeck found foreign support when the British people failed to assist him in his attack on the crown. Henry had previously placed bonds and acts of attainder of the lords of England and offered pardons to rebels as a way of ensuring that when there was trouble, there would be a lack of support. Margaret of Burgundy chose to support Warbeck as she had previously done in 1486-1487 with Lambert Simnel, in hope to regain her status over the King, who had killed her brother Richard of York. Warbeck also had support from Charles V of France, who had lost support from England and had disputes over Brittany. However, when Henry and Charles agreed to resolve their differences, and sign the Treaty of Etaples, which stated that rebels could not be concealed, Warbeck was dismissed. Warbeck then returned to Margaret, who had given the control of Burgundy to Archduke Philip. When Henry protested of the harbouring of Warbeck, Philip ignored him, this resulted in a trading ban from England. Warbeck also had support from Maximillian, who he promised could be his claimant if he should die before reaching the crown. Despite all his foreign backing, which was probably the most important reason he was such a dangerous threat, the support Warbeck received within England itself was equally as major in possibility. In 1494 Henry learnt of conspiracies within his own Government. The discovery that Sir William Stanley had been conversing with Warbeck reminded Henry that inside help was still a problem. It also became apparent that English authority within his kingdom needed addressing. Stanley had been almost second in command. Henry tightened his reign and lost all confidence and trust in those who surrounded him. An English supported attack was also visibly dangerous, as it would have been easier for Warbeck to gather together troops and supplies. Warbecks threat lasted between 1491 1499, which could suggest he was either a large threat or a relatively small one who simply couldnt form enough support to attack the King. From the evidence in the Documents, Warbeck moved from country to country, city to city suggesting that he never had a firm base of support in any particular place. Document C is the only source, which seems to imply English support, and this was from the Cornish who were already rebelling. Therefore Documents A, B, D and E, back the proposal that Warbecks main threat came from his foreign support. However, Henry over came this by his Treaties and Truces. The execution of Warbeck demonstrated to both the English and foreign leaders that Henry was secure upon the throne and remained so until his death in 1509.

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Americans are dying every day from diseases that could be prevented through the research of stem cells. Diseases like diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, breast cancer, lupus, Lou Gehrig’s disease, arthritis, stroke, anemia, cancer, immunodeficiency, corneal damage, and blood and liver diseases can one day be cured through the research and use of stem cells. People still argue that the use of embryonic stem cells is an act against God. â€Å"The bottom line is that there are 400,000 frozen embryos in the United States, and a large percentage of those are going to be thrown out† (Thomson 10). That is an act against God as well. Every day we hear about these amazing unspecialized cells, and what we also hear that the world is discovering new uses for it every day. The government should promote this phenomenon. It is crucial that the government increase funding for the extremely beneficial use of these precious cells. Embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs, which have been fertilized in vitro, fertilized outside of the womb, in an in vitro fertilization clinic. Embryonic stem cells are only one kind of stem cell. â€Å"Human embryonic stem cells are the cells from which all 200 kinds of tissue in the human body originate† (Bellomo 2). These cells are vital to the human body for development, growth, and repair of each organ. Which also means that embryonic stem cells are highly adaptable and able to correspond to every organ in the human body. â€Å"They are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of†¨inactivity† (Stem Cell Basics 2). When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more s... ...mbryonic stem cells altogether. If these stem cells were researched, tested on, and developed more, there would be no more need to kill embryos. There would also be no more controversy over embryonic stem cells. Stem cells are one of the miracles of life and these marvelous cells should be taken advantage of. They are able to save thousands of lives now and, with more researching and development, they will be able to save hundreds of thousands and even millions. The first issue that needs to be dealt with before anything else is funding for stem cell research. The issues of religion and moral beliefs cannot deter people from saving individuals who are suffering with leukemia and numerous other dreadful diseases. Everyone should receive the treatment they deserve. The government should increase funding for stem cell research for the development and use of stem cells.

Visual Argumentation: Gary McCoy’s Political Cartoon

The election fever has once again struck the land. Now more than ever, nationwide attention has started to zero in – quite lopsidedly in fact – on key political figures such as Barack Obama and John McCain. The two have been landing in major news headlines, as well as figuring in major media outfits as they try hard to convey their respective political programs to the public. As expected, they too – as indeed their proposed policies – have been subjected to a numberless of analyses, if not criticisms from all fronts; from television to radio shows, news magazines to dailies, as well as in various rallies and party conventions. One potent example of such analyses or criticisms is an editorial cartoon. Despite being just a single drawing about certain persons or issues, it nevertheless conveys powerful statements. For this paper, it would be wise to take Gary McCoy’s political cartoon, specifically depicting Barack Obama, as a specific example to concretely cite the case in point. Gary McCoy’s Caricature of Barack Obama It has to be firstly mentioned that the strength of an editorial cartoon lies in its ability to both convey the message hidden in the scene it portrays and engender â€Å"an opinion about someone or something prominent in the news† (Cartoon 217). But any evaluation of a political cartoon would also have to make a factual description of the piece as it is drawn – i. e. , a description of the cartoon as it appears. This entails suspending inherent biases, immediate judgments or initial impressions that one may already develop at the first sight of the cartoon. Gary McCoy’s caricature of Barack Obama portrays the politician while giving a speech. Therein, Obama’s face is visibly elongated; his forehead and chin thinly protruding. His right hand holds a microphone while his left hand is raised and points – that is, using his point finger – on to his supposed audience. Atop Obama is a speech-balloon which reads: â€Å"Random noun, miscellaneous verbs, blah, blah, Hope, Change†. Two creatures that appear to be kangaroos donned in coat and tie are portrayed talking to each other down the left corner. The creature to the right talks to his companion with the words: â€Å"This is getting easier by the minute†. While another balloon referenced to Barack’s supposed audience reads: â€Å"Cheer! Applause!! Yeaa!! Cheer!! Applause!! † The audience is depicted nowhere in the cartoon. It seems needless to argue that the cartoon is effective in conveying its message to its audience. This is because at first sight, one can already glean from the cartoon the central argument which it carries: that it is a criticism of Barack Obama in the first place, and the entire political system of the United States along the same vein. First, it is evident that McCoy makes a statement against Barack Obama. It can be specifically against his political strategy or the direction into which his campaign particularly treads. As indeed, the criticism can very well be against his innate giftedness to rouse a political audience, him being a gifted orator to say the least. â€Å"Random nouns and miscellaneous verbs† represents McCoy’s perception that Obama either has run out of new ideas to offer or does not have anything substantial to say in the very first place. In fact, the two kangaroos bolster the criticism being leveled. This is getting easier by the minute† appears to say that many people have in fact become used to, or have gotten tired of hearing Obama talk about his hope and change messages. The cartoon may very well be a statement against Obama’s credibility; for to imply that Obama’s hope and change messages – read: his main benchmarks – barely say anything is tantamount to saying that the heart and soul of his political agenda is ber eft of sense and direction altogether. Second, the cartoon is likewise effective in drawing related reactions beyond the intended Obama criticism. On the one hand, the cartoon is also a criticism of the people’s implied gullibility or perceived lack of critical thought in receiving Barack Obama. Obama, as mentioned, is a gifted speaker. And many people, it needs to be argued, are drawn to persons who can comport themselves authoritatively in public conventions and rallies. The cartoon therefore takes on how people appear unable to go beyond Obama’s charisma as a speaker. This is most notably seen in how the cartoon depicts the crowd applauding Obama’s speech, despite its implied lack of reasonable substance. McCoy therefore implies that, on account of this tendency, the general public is not able to give Obama’s message much needed second thoughts. On the other hand, it would be wise to cite that the cartoon can also be interpreted as a statement against the manner by which politics is exercised in this country. The conversation of the two kangaroos is telling – â€Å"this is getting easier by the minute† may be taken as a an unfortunate resignation over a political exercise marked by lack of substance on the part of politicians and lack of depth on the part of the voting public. If taken into this context, the cartoon may not specifically be against Barack Obama as the whole political system of the United States. Far from being offensive, the cartoon can in fact be ultimately taken as McCoy’s call to reform the exercise of politics in this country. Conclusion This paper now concludes that Gary McCoy’s political cartoon is effective in conveying its message to its audience. At the very least, the cartoon is clear in that it depicts its message without much ambiguity. In the discussions which were developed, it was learned that the cartoon is firstly a criticism against Barack Obama. As it depicts the politician’s speech as something that consists in nothing but the recurrent rhetoric on hope and change, the cartoon therefore implies that Obama either has nothing new to say or his message has no substance. But far from being offensive, it is also argued that the cartoon may be taken as McCoy’s call to reform the political practice of this country.

Thermodynamics And Kinetics Of Materials And Processes Environmental Sciences Essay

In natural philosophies, thermodynamics ( from the Greek I?I ­I?I?I · therme, intending â€Å" heat † and I?I?I?I ±I?I?I‚ , dynamis, intending â€Å" power † ) is the survey of energy transition between heat and mechanical work, and later the macroscopic variables such as temperature, volume and force per unit area. Its primogenitor, based on statistical anticipations of the corporate gesture of atoms from their microscopic behaviour, is the field of statistical thermodynamics ( or statistical mechanics ) , a subdivision of statistical natural philosophies. Thermodynamicss is the scientific discipline which relates kineticss of fluids with thermic and energy, thermodynamics trades with heat, work, and power. In this study a set of statements and expressions are described and explained.State of a System, 0th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The zeroth jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that when two organic structures have equality of temperature with a 3rd organic structure, they in bend equality of temperature with each other [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . If A, B, and C are systems or organic structures, we said that the organic structures or the systems are in thermic equilibrium or changeless temperature, A and B in thermic equilibrium and B and C are in thermic equilibrium besides. if T ( A ) = T ( B ) and T ( B ) = T ( C ) so T ( A ) = T ( C ) .Figure ( 1 ) : Thermal equilibrium between two organic structures.Work, Heat, 1th jurisprudence of thermodynamics:The first jurisprudence of thermodynamics provinces that during a rhythm a system ( command mass ) undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat is relative to the cyclic integral of the work [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . In another words the preservation of energy provinces that the alteration in the internal energy of any closed system equal the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system. the undermentioned equation shows that: See Piston cylinder system with H2O inside the cylinder, province ( 1 ) as shown in figure ( 2 ) below shows the initial province of the system ( H2O has internal energy ) and it is in equilibrium province, when an external burden applied to the Piston the system transferred to province ( 2 ) and work and heat transferred into and from the system to make to the 2nd equilibrium place ( province 2 ) .Figure ( 2 ) : Application of the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics.Internal Energy, Expansion Work:The internal energy is a thermodynamic belongings ; besides it can be defined as the sum of random energy included in certain sum of the mater due to the internal motion of atoms. Besides it is extended belongings because it depends on the mass of the system. The sum of internal energy of any stuff as thermodynamic belongings depends on the mass of the organic structure and it specific heat capacity, for illustration if we increase the temperature of metal its internal energy increased based on the temperature difference, besides metals have high specific heat capacity than liquids.Figure ( 3 ) : Comparison between metal and ice based on the internal energy.Heat content:The heat content is defined as the heat transportation during the procedure which is given in the footings of the alteration in internal energy, force per unit area and volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The undermentioned equation shows the chief parametric quantities of heat content. The thermodynamic potency H was introduced by the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes in early twentieth century in the undermentioned signifier: Where Tocopherol represents the energy of the system. In the absence of an external field, the heat content may be defined, as it is by and large known, by: where ( all units given in SI ) H is the heat content ( in Js ) , U is the internal energy ( in Js ) , P is the force per unit area of the system, ( in Pas ) , and V is the volume, ( in three-dimensional metres ) . Form pV ( sometimes called â€Å" flow work † ) is motivated by the undermentioned illustration of an isobaric procedure. Gas bring forthing heat ( by, for illustration, a chemical reaction ) in a cylinder pushes a Piston, keeping changeless force per unit area P and adding to its thermic energy. The force is calculated from the country A of the Piston and definition of force per unit area P = F/A: the force is F = pA. By definition, work W done is W = Fx, where ten is the distance traversed. Uniting gives W = pax, and the merchandise Ax is the volume traversed by the Piston: Ax = V. Thus, the work done by the gas is W = pV, where P is a changeless force per unit area and V the enlargement of volume. Including this term allows the treatment of energy alterations when non merely temperature, but besides volume or force per unit area are changed. The enthalpy alteration can be defined I†H = I†U + W = I†U + I† ( pV ) , where I†U is the thermic energy due to warming of the gas during the enlargement, and W the work done on the Piston.Joule-Thomson Experiment:Joule-Thomson experiment is used to find the C dioxide coefficient. And comparing the experimental value with the deliberate value. Figure ( 3 ) shows the experimental setup of Joule-Thomson experiment.Figure ( 3 ) : Joule-Thomson experimental apparatus ( Taylor ) .The fluid allowed fluxing steadily from a high force per unit area to low force per unit area through a porous stopper inserted in a pipe. At steady conditions the pipe is insulated from any heat loss to environing, the flow speed should be low so the differences in kinetic energy between the upstream and the downstream are negligible. Measurements ‘ of temperature and force per unit area up watercourse and downstream the media should be taken ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . Ploting curves for both warming and chilling procedure for force per unit area and temperature of the gas, the aforethought curves are shown in figure ( 4 ) .Figure ( 4 ) : Isenthalpic curves and the enthalpy inversion curve ( Taylor ) .Adiabatic Procedures:Adiabatic means the procedure during which the heat is prevented from traversing the boundary of the system ( G.F.C. Rogers ) . The system is thermally insulated from the environing conditions, so for adiabatic procedure the first jurisprudence of thermodynamics is reduced to the alteration in internal energy peers the work done by the system or on the system.Figure ( 5 ) : Adiabatic procedure in P-V diagram ( G.F.C. Rogers ) .What is Thermochemistry:Thermochemistry is the survey of energy produced or absorbed in chemical reactions and any physical transmutation such as runing or boiling. Thermochemistry, by and large, is concerned with the energy exchange attach toing transmutations, such as commixture, stage passages, chemical r eactions, and including computations of such measures as the heat capacity, heat of burning, heat of formation, heat content, and free energy ( E.H. Cole ) . Thermochemistry remainders on two generalisations. Stated in modern footings, they are as follows: Lavoisier and Laplace ‘s jurisprudence ( 1780 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is equal and antonym of energy alteration attach toing the contrary procedure. Hess ‘s jurisprudence ( 1840 ) : The energy alteration attach toing any transmutation is the same whether the procedure occurs in one measure or many.Figure ( 6 ) : Energy motion ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .What is Calorimetry:The word calorimetry was derived from the lateen word calor which means heat and Greek word metry which means step ; it is the scientific discipline of mensurating the sum of heat. To mensurate the energy produced from certain fuel or affair calorimeter is used. Calorimeter is a device consists of barrel filled with H2O and a bomb filled with fuel ( oil fuel or coal ) besides and electric circuit is used to bring forth electrical signal to fire the discharge inside the bomb, after that the heat transportations to the H2O inside the calorimeter, by mensurating the initial and concluding H2O temperature and cognizing the H2O sum in the calorimeter, the sum of heat green goods from the fuel discharge can be estimated. The figure below shows the calorimeter.Fi gure ( 7 ) : Calorimeter ( E.H. Cole ) .Second Law of Thermodynamicss:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics is the jurisprudence of heat and power, it can be expressed as: It is impossible to do an engine to run in a ( thermodynamics ) rhythm, in which the lone interactions are positive work done on the milieus and heat transportation from a system which remains at changeless temperature ( E.H. Cole ) .Figure ( 8 ) : The schematic of 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The undermentioned expression of the jurisprudence has been proposed: It is impossible to build a heat-engine rhythm which will bring forth merely the consequence of lifting a weight ( net work or shaft work ) if heat is exchanged with a individual thermal reservoir ( Max Planck ) , and heat can non of itself flow from a colder to a hotter system ( Rudolf Clausius ) .Carnot Cycle:Said Carnot a Gallic scientist of the early 19th century, he proposed a heat engine rhythm based on the 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics. Carnot said that the work by the heat engine rhythm increased by increasing the temperature differences between the hot and the cold reservoirs ( Leonard ) . So the efficiency of Carnot rhythm depends on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.Figure ( 9 ) : Caront rhythm in Pressure-Volume diagram, ( www.howstuffworks.com ) .The public presentation of heat engine rhythm nine expressed as the dividend divided by the cost, the intent of power rhythm is to present shaft work, which is the dividend. The cost depends on the heat suppl y from the hot reservoir.Third jurisprudence of Thermodynamicss and absolute information:The Third Law of Thermodynamics is the lesser known of the three major thermodynamic Torahs. Together, these Torahs help organize the foundations of modern scientific discipline. The Torahs of thermodynamics are absolute physical Torahs everything in the discernible existence is capable to them. Like clip or gravitation, nil in the existence is exempt from these Torahs. In its simplest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics relates the information ( entropy ) of affair to its absolute temperature ( G.F.C Rogers ) . The Third Law of Thermodynamics refers to a province known as â€Å" absolute nothing. † This is the bottom point on the Kelvin temperature graduated table. The Kelvin graduated table is absolute, intending 0A ° Kelvin is mathematically the lowest possible temperature in the existence. This corresponds to about -273.15A ° Celsius, or -459.7 Fahrenheit. In actuality, no object or system can hold a temperature of nothing Kelvin, because of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Second Law, in portion, implies that heat can ne'er spontaneously move from a colder organic structure to a hotter organic structure. So, as a system approaches absolute zero, it will finally hold to pull energy from whatever systems are nearby. If it draws energy, it can ne'er obtain absolute nothing. So, this province is non physically possible, but is a mathematical bound of the existence. In its shortest signifier, the Third Law of Thermodynamics says: â€Å" The information of a pure perfect crystal is zero ( 0 ) at nothing Kelvin ( 0A ° K ) . † Entropy is a belongings of affair and energy discussed by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. The Third Law of Thermodynamics means that as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its information approaches a changeless ( for pure perfect crystals, this invariable is zero ) . A pure perfect crystal is one in which every molecule is indistinguishable, and the molecular alliance is absolutely even throughout the substance. For non-pure crystals, or those with less-than perfect alliance, there will be some energy associated with the imperfectnesss, so the information can non go nothing. The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by believing about H2O. Water in gas signifier has molecules that can travel about really freely. Water vapour has really high information ( entropy ) . As the gas cools, it becomes liquid. The liquid H2O molecules can still travel about, but non as freely. They have lost some information. When the H2O cools farther, it becomes solid ice. The solid H2O molecules can no longer travel freely, but can merely vibrate within the ice crystals. The information is now really low. As the H2O is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the quiver of the molecules diminishes. If the solid H2O reached absolute nothing, all molecul ar gesture would halt wholly. At this point, the H2O would hold no information ( entropy ) at all.Standards of Equilibrium:The province of system is determined by the molecules within the system boundaries. The equilibrium has different significances, if we have material in solid or liquid stage we said that stuff is in stage equilibrium if its stage does non alter. Besides if the province of the stuff is changeless we said that stuff in thermodynamic equilibrium ( William C. Reynolds ) . The macroscopic belongingss that can in rule be measured as a map of the thermodynamic equilibrium province and that are in some manner relevant to energy are called thermodynamic equilibrium. Any conglomerate characteristic of all the molecules, such as their entire energy, is a thermodynamic belongings. When the province is fixed the thermodynamics belongingss are fixed.13. Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy:The thermodynamics potencies consists of four measures, these measures are internal energy, the heat content, the Helmholtz free energy and the Gibbs free energy. So Helmholtz and Gibbs are portion of thermodynamics possible. The Helmholtz free energy depends on the internal energy, temperature, and information. Equation below shows the relation between internal energy, absolute temperature, and information in Helmholtz free energy equation. Gibbs free energy as shown in equation below depends on internal energy, absolute temperature, information, absolute force per unit area, and the concluding volume. The four thermodynamic potencies are related by beginnings of the â€Å" energy from the environment † term TS and the â€Å" enlargement work † term PV. A mnemotechnic diagram suggested by Schroeder can assist you maintain path of the relationships between the four thermodynamic potencies.14. Hess ‘s jurisprudence:Hess ‘s jurisprudence states that the energy alteration in any chemical or physical reaction does non depend on the way or figure of stairss required to finish this reaction.Figure ( 10 ) : Chemical reaction stairss with energy sum.The I†H for a individual reaction can be calculated from the difference between the heats of formation of the merchandises minus the heat of formation of the reactants. In mathematical footings:15. Clausius-Clapeyron equation:The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the fluctuation of force per unit area with temperature along the saturated-vapor ( or liquid ) line to the heat content and volume of vaporisation. Th is equation is utile in building a graphical or tabular equation of province from a lower limit of experimental measurings ( Williams C. Reynolds ) . The clausius-Clapeyron equation allows gauging the vapor force per unit area at any temperature if the heat content of vaporisation and vapor force per unit area at some temperatures are known,16. Ideal Solution and Non-ideal Solution:In chemical science, an ideal solution or ideal mixture is a solution in which the heat content of solution ( or â€Å" heat content of blending † ) is zero ; [ 1 ] the closer to zero the heat content of solution is, the more â€Å" ideal † the behaviour of the solution becomes. Equivalently, an ideal mixture is one in which the activity coefficients ( which step divergence from ideality ) are equal to one ( Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia ) . A solution whose behaviour does non conform to that of an ideal solution ; that is, the behaviour is non predictable over a broad scope of concentrations and temperatures by the usage of Raoult ‘s jurisprudence. In contrast to ideal solutions, where volumes are purely linear and commixture is ever complete, the volume of a non-ideal solution is non, in general, the simple amount of the volumes of the component pure liquids and solubility is non guaranteed over the whole composing scope.Figure ( 11 ) : Behavior of non ideal solutions.17. Statistical mechanics:Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamics is a mathematical tool trades with high population or informations. It ‘s related with macroscopic thermodynamic belongingss such as work, information, free energy, and heat. Ludwig Boltzmann is the male parent of statistical thermodynamics ; he started the work in statistical mechanics in 1870.18. Raoult ‘s Law /MIXTURES:The partial vapour force per unit area of a constituent in a mixture is equal to the vapour force per unit area of the pure constituent at that temperature multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture. Raoult ‘s Law merely works for ideal mixtures In equation signifier, for a mixture of liquids A and B, this reads ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/phaseeqia/idealpd.html ) : In this equation, PA and PB are the partial vapor force per unit areas of the constituents A and B. In any mixture of gases, each gas exerts its ain force per unit area. This is called its partial force per unit area and is independent of the other gases present. Even if you took all the other gases off, the staying gas would still be exercising its ain partial force per unit area. The entire vapor force per unit area of the mixture is equal to the amount of the single partial force per unit areas. The Po values are the vapour force per unit areas of A and B if they were on their ain as pure liquids. xA and xB are the mole fractions of A and B. That is precisely what it says it is – the fraction of the entire figure of moles present which is A or B. mole fraction utilizing, for illustration:19. Reversible/irreversible/Adiabatic/isobaric/isothermal/Isochoric procedures:The reversible procedure is the procedure that the system takes topographic point one time and returns to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . The irreversible procedure, this procedure done when the system undergoes certain procedure it transferred from province and can non return to its original province without any alteration in the system or environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Adiabatic procedure, this done when the system transferred from one province to another without heat transportation to environing [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isobar procedure, it is a procedure with changeless force per unit area [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isothermal procedure, the system transferred from province to another at changeless temperature [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . Isochoric procedure, procedure with changeless volume [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 12 ) : The thermodynamics processes [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .20. Heat of Vaporization:Heat of vaporisation or latent heat of vaporisation is the sum of heat needed to reassign certain sum of affair from liquid province to vapor province. Heat of vaporisation depends on the affair itself, its sum ( mass ) , and the temperature. Table below shows the heat of vaporisation of H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] . No. Temperature ( Co ) Heat of Vaporization kJ/kg ) 1 5 2489.6 2 10 2477.7 3 15 2465.9 4 20 2454.1 5 25 2442.3 6 30 2430.5Table ( 1 ) : Heat of Vaporization for H2O at different temperatures [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .21. Restricting Procedures:Restricting procedure done when fluid go throughing through valve or sudden reduction in country, the flow is steady and the force per unit area Idaho drooped across the valve ; in the choking procedure the heat content is changeless, so the choking procedure is a procedure with changeless heat content. One application of restricting procedure is the restricting calorimeter, restricting calorimeter is a device used to find the quality of a two stage liquid-vapor mixture [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Figure ( 13 ) : Restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .22. Joule Thomson Coefficient:Joule-Thomson coefficient relates to the choking procedure, it ‘s the consequence of divergence of temperature bead to coerce bead for a steady province, steady flow through partly opening valve. The equation below shows Joule-Thomson coefficient: Positive Joule-Thomson coefficient means that there is temperature bead during the choking procedure, but when it is negative the temperature rises during the restricting procedure [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .23. Maxwell ‘s Relationss:Maxwell dealingss are mathematical dealingss for compressible fluids, this relation are related four belongingss, the thermodynamics belongingss in Maxwell dealingss are force per unit area ( P ) , Temperature ( T ) , specific volume ( V ) , and information ( S ) . Maxwell dealingss are summarized in three positions as shown below, the first position the basic equation, the 2nd position the Maxwell relation, and the last position is the working equation [ Gordon J. Van Wylen ] .Basic equationMaxwell RelationWorking EquationWhere: Uracils: internal energy. CP: specific heat under changeless force per unit area. Thymine: Temperature. Curriculum vitae: specfic heat under changeless specific volume. Phosphorus: Pressure. Volts: Volume. Second: Information. Hydrogen: Enthaply.24. Chemical equilibrium in gases:Thermodynamicss equilibrium are established when no alteration in macroscopic belongings is obtained that is intend the system is isolated from the milieus. The equilibrium is classified to three types ‘ mechanical equilibrium, chemical equilibrium, and thermic equilibrium. In chemical equilibrium there is no reaction or affair transportation from one portion of the system to another portion ( P.K. NAG ) . The system may be in mechanical equilibrium yet the system may undergo self-generated Change of internal construction due to chemical potency, such as chemical reaction or a transportation of affair, the system so is said to be in chemical equilibrium if all interactions or alterations in the system cease to take topographic point. A burning mixture of O and gasolene is non in chemical equilibrium one time the mixture is ignited.25. Statements of the Second Law/ Kelvin /Planck/Clausius Statement:Kelvin-Planck statement:It is impossible to build a device which, runing in a rhythm, will bring forth no consequence other that raising of a weight and chilling of heat reservoir ( M.L. Mathur ) . It is impossible to build a cyclic device whose consequence is to pull out heat from a heat reservoir and wholly change over into work ( M.L. Mathur ) .Clausius statementIt is impossible to build a cyclic device which will bring forth no consequence other than the transportation of heat from a low temperature beginning to high temperature heat beginning ( M.L. Mathur ) . The heat can non flux by itself ( with out the aid of an external bureau ) from low temperature to high temperature ( M.L. Mathur ) .Figure ( 14 ) : This is non possible ( Kelvin-Planck ) .26. Information of a Mixture of Ideal Gases/ Gibbs-Dalton ‘s Law:The Gibbs-Dalton equation trades with gas mixture belongingss, the entire thermodynamic belongings of a mixture of ideal gases is the amount of the belongingss that the single gases would hold if each occupied the entire mixture volume entirely at the mixture temperature, ( M.L. Mathur ) , besides the mathematical signifier of Gibbs-Dalton equation as shown below:No.MeasureEquation1 Internal Energy 2 Heat content 3 Specific heat under changeless force per unit area 4 Specific heat under changeless specific volumeTable ( 2 ) : Gas mixture equations ( M.L. Mathur ) .27. Handiness:Handiness is the system maximal available energy. This non merely depends on the given province of the system but besides on the concluding province to which the system has to be taken and mode in which it is done. When handiness of the system is required to be determined so the concluding province of system ought to be dead province ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned points should be observed when finding the handiness of any system: The concluding province of the system is dead province. The system undergoes alteration of province by a reversible procedure. The construct of handiness introduce wholly a new and good construct in the field of heat engines where overall thermic efficiency, obtained on the footing of entire chemical energy of the fuel was the lone footing for comparing engines and their public presentation.28. Real Gases /Virial Equation of State /Van der Waals Equation of State:The continuity of liquids and gases were studied by Van der Waals, the equation of equation of province for gas was obtained in 1873, and the general signifier of Van der Waals equation is: Where: a: changeless measures the cohesive forces. B: changeless accounts the volume of gas molecules. V: specific volume. : Universal gas invariable. Thymine: Absolute gas temperature. The restrictions of Van der Waals equation are ( M.L. Mathur ) : The invariables a and B are measured changeless for a substance where as they are non ; this has been proved theoretically every bit good as by experimentation. The p-v secret plan of Van der Waals equation differs from Andrews secret plan. The value of the critical volume obtained from Van der Waals equation Al coefficient is 3b as compared to its experimental determine value of 2b for the moist substances. The critical coefficient is 0.375 for Van der Waals gas equation but from experiments it was from 0.2 to 0.3 for most substances.29. Fugacity:Fugacity ( degree Fahrenheit ) was used in the first clip by Lewis, the value of fugacity approaches the value of force per unit area as the missive tends to zero, when the ideal gas conditions applies. The derived function of the Gibbs map of an ideal gas undergoing an isothermal procedure is ( P.K.NAG ) : aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦ ( 6 ) aˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦.. ( 7 ) For an ideal gas the fugacity f equal the gas force per unit area P, fugacity has the same dimensions as force per unit area.Figure ( 15 ) : Fugacity with temperature.30. Dalton ‘s Law, Raoult ‘s Law, Henry ‘s Law:Dalton states that the force per unit area of a mixture of gases is equal to the amount of the partial force per unit area of each component. This can be easy done utilizing perfect gas equation for component every bit good as for the mixture ( M.L. Mathur ) . Raoult ‘s jurisprudence [ for F. M. Raoult, a Gallic physicist and chemist ] provinces that the add-on of solute to a liquid lessens the inclination for the liquid to go a solid or a gas, i.e. , reduces the freeze point and the vapor force per unit area ( see solution ) . For illustration, the add-on of salt to H2O causes the H2O to stop dead below its normal freezing point ( 0A °C ) and to boil above its normal boiling point ( 100A °C ) . Qualitatively, depression of the freeze point and decrease of the vapour force per unit area are due to a lowering of the concentration of H2O molecules, since the more solute is added, the less the per centum of H2O molecules in the solution as a whole and therefore the less their inclination to organize into a crystal solid or to get away as a gas. Quantitatively, Raoult ‘s jurisprudence states that the dissolver ‘s vapor force per unit area in solution is equal to its mole fraction times its vapor force per unit area as a p ure liquid, from which it follows that the freeze point depression and boiling point lift are straight relative to the mode of the solute, although the invariables of proportion are different in each instance. This mathematical relation, nevertheless, is accurate merely for dilute solutions. The fact that an appropriate solute can both lower the freeze point and raise the boiling point of a pure liquid is the footing for year-round antifreeze for car chilling systems. In the winter the antifreeze lowers the freezing point of the H2O, forestalling it from stop deading at its normal freezing point ; in the summer it guards against furuncle over by raising the boiling point of the H2O. In chemical science, Henry ‘s jurisprudence is one of the gas Torahs, formulated by William Henry in 1803. It states that: At a changeless temperature, the sum of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is straight relative to the partial force per unit area of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid. An tantamount manner of saying the jurisprudence is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a peculiar temperature is relative to the force per unit area of that gas above the liquid. Henry ‘s jurisprudence has since been shown to use for a broad scope of dilute solutions, non simply those of gases. An mundane illustration of Henry ‘s jurisprudence is given by carbonated soft drinks. Before the bottle or can is opened, the gas above the drink is about pure C dioxide at a force per unit area somewhat higher than atmospheric force per unit area. The drink itself contains dissolved C dioxide. When the bottle or can is opened, some of this gas escap es, giving the characteristic hushing ( or â€Å" dad † in the instance of a bubbly bottle ) . Because the force per unit area above the liquid is now lower, some of the dissolved C dioxide comes out of solution as bubbles. If a glass of the drink is left in the unfastened, the concentration of C dioxide in solution will come into equilibrium with the C dioxide in the air, and the drink will travel â€Å" level † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry's_law ) .31. Lost Work Rate, Irreversibility Rate, Availability Loss:Information is produced as a consequence of irreversibilities present in the procedure, this may explicate with the aid of construct of lost work. The doomed in work is zero in a reversible procedure and it increases with the addition in irreversibility of the procedure till it becomes maximal in instance of wholly irreversible procedure. The lost work is therefore defined as the difference of work obtained in a reversible procedure and existent procedure ( M.L. Mathur ) . The undermentioned notes for the work lost should be taken: For a reversible procedure when the work lost is zero the alteration in information is given by: The information of a system can be increased by two ways, foremost by adding heat to the system or by holding it undergoes an irreversible procedure. The addition in entropy due to work lost is called entropy production. For an adiabatic procedure, the alteration in information is associated with irreversibilities merely.32. Irreversibility and Entropy of an Isolated System:The information of an stray system can ne'er diminish. This is known as the rule of addition of information. An stray system can ever be formed by including any system and its milieus within a individual boundary. Some times the original system which is so merely a portion of the stray system called a subsystem. The system and milieus together include every thing which is affected by the procedure ( P.K. NAG ) . Information may be decreased locally at some part within the stray system. But it must be compensated by a greater addition of information some where within the system so that the net consequence of an irreversible procedure is an entropy addition of the hole system. The entropy addition of an stray system is a step of the extent of an irreversibility of the procedure undergone by the system. The information of an stray system ever increases and becomes a upper limit at the province of equilibrium. When the system is at equilibrium any imaginable alteration information would be zero.33. Reversible and Irreversible Procedures:A reversible procedure ( ideal procedure ) is one which is performed in such a manner that at the decision of the procedure, both the system and milieus may be restored to their initial provinces, with out bring forthing any alterations in the remainder of the existence. Let the stare of a system be represented by A and allow the system be taken to province B by following the way AB. If the system and besides milieus are restored to their initial provinces and no alteration in the existence is produced, so the procedure AiB will be reversible procedure. In the contrary procedure the system has to be taken from province B to A by following the same way BiA ( P.K. NAG ) . Any irreversible ( natural ) procedure carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible procedure. A reversible procedure, which consists of a sequence of equilibrium provinces, is an idealised conjectural procedure.Figure ( 16 ) : Reversible procedure ( P.K. NAG ) .33. Dynamicss: Chemical reaction rates, half lives:Half-life is the period of clip it takes for a substance undergoing decay to diminish by half. The name originally was used to depict a feature of unstable atoms ( radioactive decay ) , but may use to any measure which follows a set-rate decay. The original term, dating to 1907, was â€Å" half-life period † , which was later shortened to â€Å" half-life † sometime in the early 1950s. Half-lives are really frequently used to depict measures undergoing exponential decay-for illustration radioactive decay-where the half life is changeless over the whole life of the decay, and is a characteristic unit ( a natural unit of graduated table ) for the exponential decay equation. However, a half life can besides be defined for non-exponential decay procedures, although in these instances the half life varies throughout the decay procedure. For a general debut and description of exponential decay, see the article exponential decay. For a general debut and description of non-exponential decay, see the article rate jurisprudence. An exponential decay procedure can be described by any of the undermentioned three tantamount expression: where N0: is the initial measure of the thing that will disintegrate ( this measure may be measured in gms, moles, figure of atoms, etc. ) , National trust: is the measure that still remains and has non yet decayed after a clip T, t1 / 2: is the half life of the decaying measure, I„ : is a positive figure called the mean life-time of the decaying measure, I » : is a positive figure called the decay invariable of the decaying measure.34. Temperature, force per unit area and i?„G:Gibbs equation shows the relation between force per unit area, temperature, and the alteration in free energy. The equation below shows that relation. G ( P, T ) = U + pV a?’ TS which is the same as: G ( P, T ) = H a?’ TS where: Uracil: is the internal energy ( SI unit: J ) P: is force per unit area ( SI unit: pascal ) Volt: is volume ( SI unit: M3 ) Thymine: is the temperature ( SI unit: K ) Second: is the information ( SI unit: J per K ) Hydrogen: is the heat content ( SI unit: J )35. Information and Disorder:Work is a macroscopic construct. Work involves orderly gesture of molecules as in the enlargement or compaction of a gas. The kinetic energy and possible energy of a system represent orderly signifiers of energy. The kinetic energy of a gas is due to the co-ordinated gesture of all the molecules with the same mean speed in the same way. The possible energy is due to vantage place taken by the molecules or supplantings of molecules from their normal place. It may province approximately that the information of a system is a step of the grade of molecular upset bing in the system.Figure ( 17 ) : Information and upset ( www.physcis.com ) .36. Osmotic force per unit area / Arrhenius Law:The Arrhenius equation is a simple, but unusually accurate, expression for the temperature dependance of the rate invariable, and hence, rate of a chemical reaction. The equation was foremost proposed by the Dutch chemist J. H. new wave ‘t Hoff in 1884 ; five old ages subsequently in 1889, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius provided a physical justification and reading for it. Nowadays it is best seen as an empirical relationship. [ 2 ] It can be used to pattern the temperature-variance of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. A historically utile generalisation supported by the Arrhenius equation is that, for many common chemical reactions at room temperature, the reaction rate doubles for every 10 grade Celsius addition in temperature ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_equation ) . In short, the Arrhenius equation gives â€Å" the dependance of the rate changeless K of chemical reactions on the temperature T ( in absolute temperature, such as Ks or grades Rankine ) and activation energy Ea, as shown below:37. Partition maps:In statistical mechanics, the divider map Z is an of import measure that encodes the statistical belongingss of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is a map of temperature and other parametric quantities, such as the volume enveloping a gas. Most of the aggregative thermodynamic variables of the system, such as the entire energy, free energy, information, and force per unit area, can be expressed in footings of the divider map or its derived functions. There are really several different types of divider maps, each matching to different types of statistical ensemble ( or, equivalently, different types of free energy. ) The canonical divider map applies to a canonical ensemble, in which the system is allowed to interchange heat with the environment at fixed temperature, volume, and figure of atoms. The expansive canonical divider map applies to a expansive canonical ensemble, in which the system can interchange both heat and atoms with the environment, at fixed temperature, volume, and chemical potency. Other types of divider maps can be defined for different fortunes ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . pi: indicate atom impulse. eleven: indicate atom places. d3: is a stenography notation functioning as a reminder that the pi and eleven are vectors in three dimensional infinite.38. Le Chatelier ‘s rule for Temperature:In 1884, the Gallic Chemist Henri Le Chatelier suggested that equilibrium systems tend to counterbalance for the effects of unhinging influences. When a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the equilibrium place will switch in the way which tends to minimise, or counteract, the consequence of the perturbation ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) ..If the concentration of a solute reactant is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the added reactants by bring forthing more merchandises. If the force per unit area on an equilibrium system is increased, so the equilibrium place displacements to cut down the force per unit area. If the volume of a gaseous equilibrium system is reduced ( tantamount to an addition in force per unit area ) so the equilibrium place displacements to increase the volume ( tantamount to a lessening in force per unit area ) If the temperature of an endothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more merchandises. If the temperature of an exothermal equilibrium system is increased, the equilibrium place displacements to utilize up the heat by bring forthing more reactants.39. Colligative belongingss:Colligative belongingss are the belongingss of the solution based on the figure of molecules per unit volume of the solution. Colligative belongingss include the vapor force per unit area, boiling and stop deading point, and osmotic force per unit area ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) . The vapor force per unit area of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor force per unit area of each chemical constituent and the mole fraction of the constituent nowadays in the solution. The boiling temperature of the solution before making the vapour stage, the freeze point is the lowest temperature of the solution before it transferred to solid province. The osmotic force per unit area of a dilute solution at changeless temperature is straight relative to its concentration. The osmotic force per unit area of a solution is straight relative to its absolute temperature.40. Information and the Clausius inequality:The 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics leads to the definition of a new belongings called information, a quantitative step of microscopic upset for a system. Entropy is a step of energy that is no longer available to execute utile work within the current environment. To obtain the working definition of information and, therefore, the 2nd jurisprudence, allow ‘s deduce the Clausius inequality. See a heat reservoir giving up heat to a reversible heat engine, which in bend gives up heat to a piston-cylinder device as shown below ( hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org ) .Figure ( 18 ) : Piston-cylinder device.

An Exploratory study of corrupt practices within the procurement process of the Indian Construction Industry The WritePass Journal

An Exploratory study of corrupt practices within the procurement process of the Indian Construction Industry Introduction An Exploratory study of corrupt practices within the procurement process of the Indian Construction Industry IntroductionDeveloping Economies:Developing economy in Indian construction:India’s construction industries:Construction Culture:Construction culture in U.K and India:Construction Procurement:Corruption in Indian construction:Corruption in U.K construction:Action Taken On corruptionType of UK corruption in the provision and management of financing for the project:Summary Relation between client and contractors:Comparison between two countries in Procurement process:Procurement problem in Sub contractors and Labours:Procurement problems in Material Issues to client:Material Procurement process:Sub contractor and labour:ConclusionReferenceBibliographyRelated Introduction Risk management is recognized as an integral part of good management practices. To be most effective and sensitive risk management should become part of an organizations culture. It should be integrated into the organizations philosophy, practices and business plans rather than be viewed or practiced as separate functions. As it is achieved, in organization risk management becomes the business for everyone .This research gives an idea of the procurement risk within Indian construction industry; this will also demonstrate the culture of construction industry, economic development of country due to construction, by this it also shows bad practice in construction and Action taken on it, Procurement in construction industry (CIDB document, 2004) Procurement  is the acquisition of appropriate goods and services at the best possible  total cost of ownership  to meet the needs of the purchaser in terms of quality and quantity, time, investment and location. in the construction projects are carried out with internal resources, i.e where no work is outsourced, only the organisation requiring the project, for practical purposes, it is at risk. However, where construction projects are implemented by contractor, a number of parties can be at risk. (Best practice guide, 2004). The developing countries should develop and apply appropriate procurement systems which suit their culture and business management traditions. Research should be undertaken on a set of criteria for contractor selection including price, which is suitable for the context of each developing country. Given the nature of the culture of most developing countries, where trust and goodwill are valued, partnering appears to have scope in these countries, as business relationships in the construction industries are, as yet, less adversarial than in the industrialised countries. Developing Economies: Corporate development is a key issue in developing countries, and the availability of suitable work opportunities is important. Local construction firms should be enabled to participate in as wide a range of the projects undertaken in their home markets as possible. Innovative schemes will be necessary, and involving the potential beneficiaries in the design of the programmes would help for country economy. Developing countries adopt different approaches hereare few of them have agencies dedicated to this task such as the National Construction Council of Tanzania (formed in 1982); Building and Construction Authority, Singapore (set up in 1984); Construction Industry Development Board, Malaysia (established in 1994) and Construction Industry Development Board, South Africa (set up in 2002). Some of these organisations have made progress but t, as yet, small number shows that developing countries are not convinced that they are beneficial. (Gorge Ofori no date) Developing economy in Indian construction: India is currently the second fastest-growing economy in the World. The Indian construction industry has been playing a vital role in overall economic development of the country, growing at over 20% Compound Annual Growth Rate over the past 5 years and contributing 8% to GDP (By  NewsDesk 2010). some new technologies entering the market everyday in Indian constructions and in keeping with international trends, construction design has become a basic part and parcel of the design concept and identity of a building, whether commercial, residential or industrial constructions. It is critical to keep with the latest trends and technologies for the basic safety and security of a building. (By  NewsDesk 2010) India is one of the most developing construction economies and  is the  eleventh largest  economy in the world by nominal and the  fourth largest  by  purchasing power parity  (PPP) (Ist Agencies, 2010).  Following strong economic reforms from the socialist inspired  economy  of a post-independence Indian nation, the country began to develop a fast-paced  economic growth, as  free market  principles were initiated in 1990 for international competition and foreign investment. Hhigher productivity leads to improved economic outcomes (for example, higher income, more choices to the consumers, better quality products, etc.), Lall (2001) says that the appropriate strategy for any country depends not only on its objective economic situation but also on its government policies and national views regarding the appropriate role of the state. (Economic development in India) India’s construction industries: India is the fourth largest economy, with a GDP of US$1,242.8 billion in 2008 between 2000 and 2008 in construction, Indias GDP growth rate doubled from 5.7% in 2000 to 9.3% in 2007. The construction industrial sector has predominately fuelled this growth. During 2000-07, contributions by the industrial sector to Indias total value-added increased from 26.2% in 2000 to 29.4% in 2007. According to IHS Global Insight, Indias GDP is expected to continue along a robust growth path, albeit slower than growth witnessed in recent years. Between 2008 and 2012, Indias real GDP growth will range between 6.5% and 8.2%. During the same period, Indias nominal GDP growth will range from 9.3% in 2008 to 13.5% in 2012, with a negative growth rate of 1.7% in 2009.(his Global,2009) Construction Culture: The word ‘culture’ has many meanings, which have changed over the past two generations (Barthorpe,s, 1999). Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), American anthropologists, presented 160 different definitions of culture. Bodley (1994) culled a simple version that stated that culture involves what people think, what they do, and what they produce. Culture has several properties: it is social heritage or tradition; it is shared, learned human behaviour; and it is symbolic and based on shared, assigned meanings of the members of a group. (Putti and Chia 1990) considered culture as a set of values, beliefs, norms, attitudes and habits of people, pointing out that a society’s beliefs and values have an impact on the way business is conducted in that society. Hildebrandt et al. (1991) suggested that the implementation of an organization’s culture is influenced by: nature of environment, type of company, and special character of company and employees. Construction culture in U.K and India: It can be said that, Indian construction culture is different from the British in by certain ways like attitudes towards quality, price, consistency, branding, and other costs of stress and time. This will ultimately have an effect on consumption behaviour and, therefore, it is vital to understand ‘‘value orientations’’ which will help us to better understand the psyche of people. Issues relating to community support in its various guises (Bonacich, 1973, 1987; Aldrich et al., 1989; Waldinger, 1989) as well as issues relating to the historical perspective of Asian-owned firms operating a ‘‘harmonious, family-orientated practice’’ (Werbner, 1984) will all affect consumption behaviour too. From a managerial viewpoint, the priority of collaborators in cultures where ‘‘time is money’’ will be to optimise time, which is seen as a scarce economic resource in western cultures, a lot of time is actually spent waiting, whereas for the Indian cultures, there is often neither expectation nor despair; people do not get impatient because they are not nervously dependent on an uncertain future time. They do not ‘‘wait’’ because, unconsciously or not, they are not eliminating the present. Indians look at time as something to experience, logical to suppose that saving time would be less important to Indians than as compare to other countries. Construction Procurement: The project procurement and administrative arrangements currently in use in developing countries have been inherited from Western countries which have different history, culture, collective experience and breadth of construction expertise. These arrangements determine the documentation, procedures and practices in the industry, and specify the roles of the participants and the relationships amongst them. Traditional design and construction services can foster adversarial relationships between the clients, designers, and contractors, can restrict innovation, resulting high cost and time extended. Traditional systems may therefore not necessarily provide the best value to all project types, as deteriorating infrastructure and increasing population and have created tremendous pressures to move critical projects quickly through the planning stage and into design and construction, without a commensurate increase in available funding. External pressures are the basic requirement to include quality concepts in all phases of the highway program. Thus, there is a continuing need for the Department to review and evaluate procurement and contracting procedures that promote improved efficiency and quality of construction. Procurement procedures are used to evaluate and select designers, contractors, and various consultants. Evaluation and selection can be based solely on price, solely on technical qualifications, or on a combination of price, technical qualifications, time, and other factors. (Innovative procurement practices). Bad practice of construction (Corruption/ Transparency) Corruption on construction projects is a complicated problem. It may occur in the form of bribery, extortion, fraud or collusion. It can take place during any phase of a project, including project identification, planning, financing, design, tender, execution, operation and maintenance. In each project phase, corruption may involve any one or more of the government, project owner, funders, consultants, contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, joint venture partners, and agents. Furthermore, corruption is concealed and those aware of it are either complicit in it or reluctant to report it. This makes it more difficult to detect (Giacc, 2008) Corruption in Indian construction: In India found that more than 50% of the people had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office. Transparency International estimates that in another industry it was found that their annually pay was US$5 billion in bribes.  For 2010, India was ranked 87th  of 178th  countries in Transparency Internationals  Corruption Perceptions Index, which was a huge setback from the preceding year (Jo Johnson, May, 2007) Type of corruptions within Indian construction: Political, Bureaucracy, Land and Property Tendering Process and awarding contracts Transport Income Tax Even police, judiciary and Religious Institution  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Preferential award of public resources For purpose of this study, this discussion will focus upon more pertinent issues in Indian construction industry are: Land and property: Officials often steal state property. In  Bihar, more than 80% of the subsidized food aid to poor is stolen. In cities and villages throughout India,  Mafia Raj  consisting of municipal and other government officials, elected politicians, judicial officers, real estate developers and law enforcement officials, acquire, develop and sell land in illegal ways. (Economic development, 2008) In India, since in most of the land settlement has not been undertaken since the departure of the British. Land records are in a pathetic state, and so are very easy to manipulate. In major cities like Delhi and Mumbai it is believed that typically 60% of the payment for high-end properties is made in cash under the table. (Corruption trips India’s rise, 2010) Tendering process and awarding contracts:   Government officials having discretionary powers in awarding contracts engage in preferential treatment for selected bidders, display negligence in quality control process. Many state-funded construction activities in India, such as road building, are dominated by construction mafias, which are groupings of corrupt public works officials, materials suppliers, politicians and construction contractors.  Shoddy construction and material substitution (e.g. mixing sand in  cement  while submitting expenses for cement) result in roads and highways being dangerous, and sometimes simply washed away when Indias heavy  monsoon  season arrives (The Wall Street Journal, 2008)    Corruption in U.K construction: Corruption within the UK construction industry is an issue that is the subject of perception and rumour rather than of facts. Apart from periodic instances of exposure and action, it is a subject discussed as conjecture rather than knowledge. This survey has attempted to look at the issue from the point of view of those who work within the industry in order to gain a better perspective on the issues they face. (Ciob Survey,2006) It would seem from the results that while corruption is present to some degree in many areas of the construction industry, there is some disagreement of where networking and the development of harmonious working relationships stop, and corruption starts. It is clear that those who responded are aware of the issues, but there are clear indications of degrees of tolerance to some practices that some would regard as corrupt. The results also showed that the vast majority of respondents feel strongly that more should be done to address this issue. CORRUPTION IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY: THE PROBLEM. â€Å"The impact of corruption goes far beyond the specific misbehaviour of the actors involved. It is repercussion sweep across the entire population. A one million euro bribe can rapidly amount to one hundred million euro loss in a poor country – through de-railed development plans and incoherent investment decisions. Unfinished roads, crumbling schools and crippled health systems are but a few serious examples which illustrate the impact of this phenomenon† (James Lewis, 2008) FORMS OF CORRUPTION Corruption in construction industry can take place in many forms, the common ones being bribery, exhortation, fraud and collusion as well as other persons, who were complicit in the offence, may be guilty of bribery. A bribe may be a cash payment, or it may be a non-cash advantage (such as the promise of a future contract, or a holiday). It can be institutional or personal. Institutional bribery refers to a situation where a bribe may be paid or received with the full approval of the organisation which is the employer of the individual paying or receiving the bribe. This may occur, for example, where a contracting company authorises its commercial director to pay a bribe to win a tender This may occur, for example, where a government officer receives a bribe to award a contract, where the government department in question would not approve the bribe. A contractor may pay a bribe to the project owner’s representative to have defective or non-existent work approved. (James Lewis, 2008) If the parties are in dispute in relation to the construction of the project, one party may bribe a witness, expert, arbitrator or judge in order to give false evidence, or to give a favourable opinion or verdict. Fraud usually involves one person (or group of persons) deceiving another person in order to gain some financial or other advantage. In the context of a construction project, fraud offences may include: concealment of defects dishonestly levying liquidated damages dishonestly withholding payment dishonestly exaggerating the quantum of a claim fabricating or falsifying evidence to support claims (James Lewis, 2008) Parties may be liable for the offence of fraud, For example, a contractor may be liable for fraud if it submits a claim for additional payment which it suspects is inflated but fails to take reasonable steps to determine that the claim is accurate. A bribe paid to win a project will normally be concealed by some fraudulent act with the aim that the project appears from the outside to have been won on a genuine arms-length basis. (James Lewis, 2008) However, many acts of fraud may need an act of bribery in order to complete the fraud. For example, a contractor may submit a false claim to a project owner (which is fraud) and May then bribe the certifier to approve the claim (which is bribery). Extortion is a form of blackmail where one party makes threats against another party of adverse consequences unless demands, usually for payment, are met by the other party. Such blackmail may constitute, for example, refusal to provide customs clearance for equipment or materials, or refusal to make payments or issue certificates that are due. Sometimes such threats may involve threats of physical harm. Collusion occurs where two or more parties co-operate to defraud or deceive another party. This is a type of fraud and is often described as a â€Å"cartel†, â€Å"anti-trust† or â€Å"anti-competitive† offence. This form of collusion is often referred to as â€Å"bid rigging In some cases, the corrupt practice may be a voluntary act undertaken by the relevant party with the deliberate intention of gaining a competitive advantage or obtaining additional unjustified compensation. (James Lewis, 2008) However, in other cases, the practice may be undertaken so as to â€Å"level the playing field†. For example, a contractor may feel compelled to offer a bribe during tendering if it believes that its competitors will be offering a bribe. A contractor may feel that it is necessary to inflate a claim artificially if it believes that the project owner will automatically and unjustifiably reduce the contractor’s claim or raise artificial counter-claims against the contractor. (James Lewis, 2008) In some circumstances, a bribe may be extorted from the payer. For example, a contractor may be informed that if it does not pay a bribe, it will not receive a payment to which it is entitled. Corruption in the public sector usually involves bribery or fraud being perpetrated against a government body Contract prices fraudulently inflated. Where a contract is corruptly awarded, it is often the case that the contract price is significantly inflated, not just to cover the cost of the bribe, but also to maximise profit for the contractor. Where the contractor is assured of success in winning the contract, it will have considerable freedom to demand a high contract price. Contracts awarded and claims approved in the hope of future or indirect gain. In developed countries, the corrupt awarding of contracts and corrupt approval of fraudulent claims may take a more insidious form. Large bribes may not necessarily change hands directly. (James Lewis, 2008) In simple terms, corruption in the public sector is stealing from the taxpayer. Money is stolen which could be spent on hospitals, schools, roads, and other vitally important infrastructure. This loss will be felt most severely in poorer countries. It will nevertheless also be felt in developed countries where large sums may be lost through more subtle forms of corruption. It may result in an increase in the financing, capital, operating and maintenance costs of projects. This in turn may result in increased property or utility prices, or increased charges that are required for use of certain facilities such as toll roads or bridges. It may also result in dangerously defective works. It is unlikely that there will be significant corruption in the private sector without such corruption spreading to the public sector. The risks of corruption in public contracting can be more easily understood in relation to each stage of a contracting process what to buy/sell/do and description of goods and services. These are the technical requirements. Contract award ending with a decision to select the winning bidder; and Contract implementation and supervision, It is generally believed that the risk of corruption is especially high during the evaluation phase of a contracting process, Underperformance, contract renegotiation; change orders, over-billing, and non compliance are just some of the forms of abuse.    Action Taken On corruption From this research is a lack of clear definition of corruption and corrupt practices, the results is apparent that the respondents felt that corruption certainly did exist in the UK and India but to what extent was not clear still. The client should knock them down. The client is knocking down the hours as they are aware that exaggeration is common therefore the situation becomes self-fulfilling and self-perpetuating. A similar situation appears to be occurring with inflated invoicing or claims for extra costs. On the flip side of this, clients may be finding spurious reasons to withhold payment from the contractor. Type of UK corruption in the provision and management of financing for the project: Bribes paid or fraud perpetrated by the funder’s representative for the benefit of the funder; Bribes paid or fraud perpetrated by the funder’s representative for his own personal benefit; Bribes paid or fraud perpetrated by the project owner’s representative for the benefit of the project owner; Bribes paid or fraud perpetrated by the project owner’s representative for his own personal benefit; Bribes extorted or fraud perpetrated by a government official for the benefit of the official.( TI-ACF.REPORT, 2006) Anti-corruption actions should deal with all types of construction corruption referred to in paragraph above, both by implementing appropriate anti-corruption systems within the funders organisation, and by that suitable anti-corruption controls are imposed at project level. Anti-corruption actions may be modified according to the extent of the commercial risk and the type of financing being provided by the funder. The provision of aid, or a material amount of equity or lending will inevitably give a funder greater control over the implementation of project anti-corruption mechanisms than, for example, the provision of insurance. low risk contracts or projects would require a lower level of preventive action than large or high risk contracts or projects. However, it should be remembered that while commercial risk may be reduced according to the size of the contract or project, the criminal risk will remain the same. PROCRUTMENT PROCESS India is rapidly ramping up its capital spending, the efficiency of which will be determined by the Government able to manage infrastructure spending effectively. Unfortunately civil works, worldwide have the tendency to create strong differences in opinion between even the best intentioned parties, which can quickly degenerate into acrimonious disputes and become difficult to resolve. The ability, therefore, to resolve contract disputes quickly and effectively is the difference between a project that is completed on time and a failed capital investment that is completed only after many years of delay. The DRB process is recognized globally as a best practice for dispute resolution as a cost-effective mechanism to help the parties head off problems before they escalate into major disputes resulting in arbitration or litigation22. Since 1994 DRBs have been required on all World Bank23-funded civil contracts above US$50 million and in 2004 the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) 24 jointly agreed to the publishing of harmonized procurement documents that included the requirement for DRBs. DRB recommendations often have little effect, since the vast majority is rejected. 79% of DRB recommendations are rejected – 44% are rejected by the Employer and 35% by the Contractor. (IRCI, 2008) The rejection of DRB recommendations has serious negative consequences for the efficiency of public spending. There is a clear difference in the time it takes to complete a project in cases where DRB recommendations are rejected, as compared to those where recommendations are accepted. Contract dispute resolution processes that happen after the rejection of a DRB recommendation are very lengthy and costly. Finally a high-level meeting with GOI is proposed to summarize the findings of the workshops and to provide recommendations for improving the effectiveness of DRBs in India. GDLN/NICNET could then be utilized to provide training for potential employers, contractors and DRB members to share the principles of DRBs; the contractual and legal implications; and how the members of DRBs are appointed with a concentration on the â€Å"how† of making DRBs work with actual examples of problems and obstacles that have to be overcome. (IRCI, 2008) The objective of these case studies is to identify other countries that have experienced rapid road development and to examine how they strengthened the capacity of their road construction industry to meet the demand of their roads program. The purpose of these case studies is to identify what measures were taken by other governments and industry, to improve the construction industry capacity. Since the 1990s China has enjoyed a rapid increase in the rate of road construction and has become one of the fastest countries to build its road network27. At the core has been the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS), designed to connect all the major cities and provincial capitals with populations greater than 500,000 through the construction of twelve major highways. This has now been expanded by the â€Å"7- 9-18 Highway Network† which is intended to link all cities with populations above 200,000 to those connected by the NTHS. According to the UN Economics and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific28, road construction investment in China has been steadily increasing from US$25 billion in 2001 to US$68 billion in 2005 (.(IRCI, 2008) Malaysia decided in 1977 to build a toll expressway from north to south of the peninsular to link all the main towns. To facilitate this construction the Malaysia Highway Authority was established in October 198029 with the objectives to (a) provide a fast, safe and efficient means of road transport for the entire country; (b) link all existing major townships and potential areas of development; (c) enable an effective interurban public road transportation to be provided throughout the country and (d) train personnel and further develop expertise on all facets of road construction, operation and maintenance. Most of the highways are toll operated. The highway program in Korea is governed by the National Transport Network Plan (NTNP), which has guided road development over the last 40 years from 313 km of major highways in 1960 to 2,778 km in 2003 (an almost 800% expansion) and from 27,169 km of general roads in 1960 to 94,473 km in 2003 (250% increase)31. According to the NTNP betwee n 2000 and 2019, 3,753 km of additional highways are to be built, increasing the length of highways by three times the length that existed in 1997, together with increasing fourlane highways from the 24% in 1997 to 50% in 201032. Korea has also developed a way for private investors to profit from 2,844 km of its toll roads by the development of the Korean Road Infrastructure Fund, which is traded on the Korean Stock Exchange (IRCI, 2008) China has seen remarkably fast changes in its transition from a command economy to a competitive market economy and in the strengthening of its construction industry. Only in 1983 did China classify the construction companies as a service industry. China has reformed its procurement process and now more than 90% of urban and industrial projects are awarded based on competitive or selective bidding (IRCI, 2008) Malaysia provides an example of a country developing its road program through the construction of toll roads. It learned lessons, which included the reality of restrictive public funds limiting its ability to expand the road network and leading to cancellation of projects. This prompted the opening up to the private industry with BOT arrangements (IRCI, 2008) Korea provides a good example of rapid expansion using the private industry and public/private partnerships (PPP). Most of the road network consists of PFI projects, which has demonstrated the strengths and weaknesses of BOT-type development. To understand the structure of the road construction industry it is useful to review the dramatic institutional changes that have occurred in China over the last 30 years. (IRCI, 2008) Prior to 1976 during the leadership of Mao Zedong business enterprises and communes, including construction organizations, were all directly controlled by central or provincial government. In many rural areas the agricultural communes actually replaced local government and provided the basic services, such as health care, education, welfare for the elderly and granted permission to couples to have their one child. This was the time of the â€Å"iron rice bowl†, when enterprise workers were guaranteed life-long employment and security despite enterprise redu ndant overstaffing and lack of finances to provide adequate services (IRCI, 2008). As a simple activity to assemble material for Construction was viewed; plant and other items made by the other sectors of the economy to create building or civil engineering works and were considered to have no significant added value to the total social product. Most of the central ministries formed their own construction companies to implement their own specific capital projects. Summary This report gives information about process and types of construction in Indian and in UK, and also construction plays main role for economic development in both countries, and it has some negative parts such as Corruption/ Transparency in both countries, and also this report is prepared by Transparency International (UK) and the Indian construction on commission for the UK and Indian Government Department for International Development (DFID). It has been endorsed by the UK Anti- Corruption Forum which is an alliance between UK business associations, professional institutions and organisations with interests in the domestic and international infrastructure, construction and engineering sectors. Research Methodology Primary data collection will be through semi structured telephone interviews of selected sample Exploratory research of Qualitative Data Procurement play very important role in Construction Industry whether it is small scale or big scale construction industry. In this chapter will discuss the rationale behind the choice of the data collection that was used in this research. As previously stated the main aim of the dissertation is to discover corrupt practices within the procurement process in the Indian Construction Industry. The research plans to comparison between the India and U.K construction industry and investigate any associated corruption within them. As we have found less information on this topic, we need to talk with some of the experience people of this field. In this telephones interview we have to discover as much as possible information about the topic. The sequence of the questioning is in order to built up the rapport with in the respondent and the explore As interviews are taken of the Engineers, Client and Contractors, and in that the result we got is India and UK construction process is very much similar and the business culture of different from the Indian in some ways such as high technology used in construction in UK, Employees and main is Currency due to that all the process changes, as the Currency of UK pound is high as compare to the INDIAN Rupees, It make lot of difference by standard of living, thinking and mostly on construction project by using Advance Machineries on site. As we all know the India is one of the developing countries and UK is developed, it make lot of change in everything, and the technique of construction used in the Indian construction is the followed from UK, as an example ISO code is used for construction all the safety and construction work is the same. Just different is in labours in India most of the construction project is completed by using Labours and less machinery, and in UK all the construction work is done by machineries, for an example in India till today in small project concrete is mixed by labour on site with site mixture. These days in India in big scale construction industry we found all the heavy machineries and less labour are used; all the process is the same like UK. The question which was asked to all of them was related to construction industry and all were in general. First question I asked them all was How do you think Indian and UK construction process compare? Most of them said they don’t know much about UK construction process but they just know few main key points as are: Both the countries follows the same construction process We follow the British rules of construction like ISO code and many more Mainly in the UK construction work done by high technique and accurate machineries and in the India small or big scale industry mainly work done by labours. As the labours are cheap and easy to get that’s why most of the Indian construction labour oriented work is done. Relation between client and contractors: As the both countries follows the same construction method. In both countries the relationship between the client and contractor is the same while the construction is in process, they have to maintain their relationship in good, as the interviewers said in some of the firm relation between the client don’t take place client hire the third party (consultancy) to look after the construction work as the client don’t have construction profession/ knowledge, consultancy look for the clients expectations and requirements and complete the requirement from the contractor. As the client hire the consultancy the time take for any decision is much longer than direct conversation, client goes with safe and quality work. Comparison between two countries in Procurement process: As the interviewer said they don’t have idea about UK construction process but they said they can tell about the Indian construction procurement process. As the both countries have lot of different in using materials for construction as the climate is not the same. In the Indian construction contractor mostly stock the material in bulk quantity, as they have space to store the material In the UK construction the material can easily available when they required. In the India material is stock due to unavailability of material in certain season. For example contractor stock river sand (fine aggregate) before rainy season starts, the chances of availability river sand is less and the material cost is very high in rainy season so they stock the some material before price goes high. Material like River sand, Bricks cement and course aggregate. As from new and some online documentary can be say that both countries have similar procurement process not all the some ways. In the Indian construction more space is available for storage of material on site as in UK doesn’t have space for storage as compare to Indian construction site. What are the Procurement problems caused by the client are you aware of? As this question are only about the Indian construction, the interviewers some main points: Client has issues with good quality materials should be used on the construction site. Client also has problems in material used as per design the material is used more or less. Re estimating the project due to fluctuation of the materials rate in market. Client mainly have problem with contractor as the client look for his profit and use material which is not tested or not quality material Contractor makes profit and using fewer materials. Procurement problem in Sub contractors and Labours: Sub contractor and labours are the part of procurement process. Problem for clients are: Labours which are used for work on site are not skilled Client won’t interfere in the work but he found any mistake done by the worker he interfere that time, In big scale construction industry client don’t interfere with sub contractor, as they have appointed the consultant party for the work, Procurement problems in Material Issues to client: Client have issues in material by not using proper/ quality material while construction, Client have problem with not proper planning of the material availability Less use of the material like cement in concrete while construction Material which has taken on site should be checked and tested properly and should be recorded on the record book. Contractor can accept the low quality material for their own profit In your opinion does corruption occurs in the construction industry? Most of the interviewer said Yes corruption does take place in construction industry, but not as previous days, the percentage of corruption in the Indian construction industry is very less or negligible, that also in small scale construction industries. In big scale industry they keep all the records of materials, like by Quality or Quantity all materials are mention and recorded on the material recorded book. These days on every construction industry you will get record book of material which are used and how much is left, so there’s no chance to get corruption. Corruption in Tendering Process Some of the interviewer said NO corruption don’t appear in tendering process, these days before submitting the tender all the contractor has to submitte their previous record and all the work record, the client check all the details of the contractor and then he goes for the better work experience or the good work records. Few interviewers said Yes corruption does happen in tendering process, as the tendering is the main step of the construction, corruption in tendering means are managing tender between the client and contractor, these can be seen in private construction sector, but these days mostly tendering are submitted online which can bidding so that everyone can see the tendering process and who got the tender. Corruption happen in tendering is by contractor changing the material rates as the rates are fluctuated rise by 6% to 7%, so contractor can demand for revaluation for rates as per market in this way corruption happens in tendering process. Material Procurement process: In construction industry no chance of corruption as all the material have the records and check list with the certificates so no chance of corruption, as all the time client engineer is with contractor’s engineer to check all the material and its quantity and quality. Corruption occurs when accepting bad quality material on site. Sub contractor and labour: As the sub contractor and labour don’t have many issues in the process, as the working rates are fixed for them, problem is sub contractor use the unskilled labour and takes payment of skilled labour from the contractor. As the sub contractor has given the work on measurement. As the interviewer saying they don’t find much problem of corruption in subcontractor and labours. Conclusion Construction process of UK and the India is same as both countries follow the same construction process. Just have difference in procurement process in both the countries. Corruption in the Indian construction industry is reduced as using new technology in construction, and some where the corruption happen but that also negligible. India’s big scale industry and UK construction is the same. In the India, labours are easily available and cheap to hire them for work as compare to UK. Client and contractor relationship don’t have much difference, certain things are better in UK construction like speed work, quality work, new technologies are used. Indian construction industry is poised to grow exponentially because of massive infrastructure building programs. This has created excellent opportunities for the construction industry in terms of business opportunity. The Indian economic environment and system and procedures would further boost the construction industry which would provide the basic physical infrastructure for the nation as well as other industries. (CIDC, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦) Recommendation of Further Research â€Å"The construction industry is dynamic in nature. The concept of project success has remained ambiguously defined in the construction industry. Project success is almost the ultimate goal for every project†. (Albert P.C. Chan, Ada P.L. Chan, (2004)). The research of UK and Indian construction industry information was not much information to collect; further research should be more about Technology, use of machineries and their procurement process, more information of UK construction and its bad practise within it. Detail    Reference Keith Parry. (12 January 2010).  Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009.  Available: parliament.uk/briefingpapers/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-05268.pdf. Accessed 19 Nov 2010. Anil K. Lal and Ronald W. Clement. (Dec 2005). Asia-Pacific Development Journal. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:. 12 (2), p81-99 Barthorpe, S., Duncan, R. and Miller, C. (1999) A literature review on studies in culture: a pluralistic concept. In Ogunlana, S.O. (ed.), Pro. table Partnering in Construction Procurement, E.F.N. Spon, London, pp. 533–42. Bodley, J.H. (1994) Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Global System, May. eld. 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